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Kaninska The following tables list the Nenets families and the number of Nenets taxpayers. The categories are somewhat disordered in Castrén’s notes. In the early 19th century, the Nenets living in the Arkhangelʹsk oblastʹ were administratively divided into five groups based on their living areas and on the slobodka ʻvillage, town’ where they customarily paid their taxes. 1. The Kanin Nenets lived on the Kanin Peninsula and the regions south-west and north-west of it. They paid their tribute in Mezenʹ. 2. The Timan Nenets lived in the northern tundra areas east of Kanin. They paid their tribute in Mezenʹ. 3. The Pustozersk or Jugor (jugorskaja samojadʹ) Nenets consisted of communities living in the plains of the Malaja tundra west of the River Pečora and northern tundra areas (Bolʹšezemelʹskaja tundra) east of Pečora. They paid their tribute in Pustozersk. 4. The Ustʹ-Cilʹma Nenets lived in the southern Pečora basin and its vicinity. They paid their tribute in Ustʹ-Cilʹma. 5. The Ižma Nenets lived mostly in the forest or tundra forest areas. They paid their tribute in Ižma. The Ustʹ-Cilʹma and Ižma Nenets were also designated as forest dwellers (lesnye), in contrast to their northern pastoralist tribesmen (tundrovye). The European Nenets are known to have paid their taxes regularly, but not always in the same slobodka, which is why the statistics based on their tax payments are not reliable in every sense. One should also note that the living areas were not as stable as among peasants: there was constant movement between the communities and also over the Ural Mountains. (Kolyčeva 1956; Dolgich 1970: 17; Vasilʹev 1979: 75–85) och Timanska tundran äro nu åtskilda från Pustozersk Pustozersk (TN Санэр” харад) was one of the most significant administrative centres of the Mezenʹ uezd during Castrén’s expedition. Founded in 1499 as a fort, it later developed into an important administrative, economic, spiritual, and cultural centre as well as a bridgehead for the northern expeditions in Siberia. Its significance had already begun to decrease in the late 18th century. Currently, there are no inhabitants in Pustozersk. Nevertheless, there is a museum (Pustozerskij kompleksnyj istoriko-prorodnyj muzej). N67°32′11″ E52°35′11″ (NAO-ES: 226.) och Ishma, utgöra hvardera ett distr[ikt]. för sig. I Kaninska tundran finnas följande роды. The Kanin and Timan tundras are now separated from Pustozersk and Ishma; they both form a district. The following family groups exist in the Kanin tundra.
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Samojederne delar sig i stammar (роды), The picture of Nenets communities began to evolve in the publications based on the Academic expeditions of the 18th century and later in the 19th century, when larger archival materials and First Census data could be used. However, the terms used for the types of Nenets communities derive both from Tundra Nenets practices and notions developed after the colonisation and during the development of taxation. Consequently, the Russian notion rod ‘family’, is strongly connected to the taxation practices. This is also reflected in the fact that the Nenets are listed according to the places where they were due to pay the tribute. The Tundra Nenets equivalents for family-based social categories would be yerkar or tenz. In addition to yerkar and tenz, ngesi ‘camp’, is also of importance: it is an everyday economic and social unit, whereas tenz and yerkar denote larger circles of social ties. Dolgich, Chomič, and Vasilʹev have summarised the often fragmented and variable data concerning the family names and the population numbers, and their conclusions are cited in the commentaries related to names. However, one should keep in mind that the social groups are not as stable as the notions might indicate. (Chomič 1966: 141–144; Chomič 1976: 96; Dolgich 1970; Vasilʹev 1979; Volžanina 2010: 17–24) och af dem finnas i Mesenska kretsen The Mezenʹ uezd was founded in 1780, and it covered a large area from the River Mezenʹ to the Ural Mountains. Administratively, the uezd was part of the Arkhangel’sk oblast’ and Vologodskoe namestničestvo. In addition to the uezd centre, Mezenʹ, the slobodkas of Pustozersk, Ižma, and Ust-Cil’ma represented significant administrative centres. In 1835, the Nenets were given the right of possession of their ancestral lands, which were divided into the Kanin, Timan, and Bolšezmelʹskaja tundras. (Gosudarstvennyj archiv 2000: 264; Trošina & Minčuk 2015) följande: The Samoyeds are divided into tribes (rody), and in the Mezen uezd' there are the following: I I Pustoserska Sloboden (Пустозерской слободки) I In Pustosersk Slobodka Выйчейсскаго Vyučeskoj. Vyučeskoj corresponds to the TN family Выуци or Вууци and Ңууциʹ; also Выуческойʹʹ. (Chomič 1966: 151; Chomič 1976: 103; Tereščenko 2003: 63, 405.) (рода) Лохейсскаго Lochejsskoj. Also Logej, Lècheci, Lagejskoj, Lochejsskij. Corresponds to the TN family Лэхэ, fe. Лэхэй; also Лагейскойʹʹ. (Chomič 1966: 151; Chomič 1976: 105; Tereščenko 2003: 170, 206) Ноготыссiи Nogotyssij. Corresponds to TN Нохо’ Тысъя, fe. Нохоʹ Тысъиʹ; also Ноготысыи. A branch of the Тысъя family (Dolgich 1970: 9–10; Chomič 1976: 105; Tereščenko 2003: 683). Тысссiи TN Тысъя. One of the six main branches of the European Nenets families (Dolgich 1970: 9–10; Chomič 1976: 108). Канинскаго (берега) hör numera ej till Pustozersk Таибары Tajbarej. Corresponds to TN Тайбарей, fe. Тайбариʹ. (Chomič 1976: 108; Tereščenko 2003: 616) Vyučejsskoj Lochejsskoj Nogotyssij Tyssij [The shores of] Kanin no longer belongs to Pustozersk Taibary II. Устцылемской слободки. II In Ustcylemsk slobodka Хатанзейскаго Chantanzejskij. Chantanzejskij corresponds to TN Хэтанзи, fe. Хэтанзиʹ. Хэтанзи is one of the six main branches of the European Nenets families. (Dolgich 1970: 9–10; Chomič 1966: 151; Chomič 1976: 110) Выучейскаго. Chatanzejskij Vyučesskoj III. При Ижемской Слободке III. In Ižemsk Slobodka Хатанзейскаго Выучейскаго. Вануйти. Vanujta. Also Vanjuta, Vanojta. TN Ванойта, fe. Ванойʹ, Ванойтиʹ or Ванюта represents one of the six main branches of the European Nenets families. It has also been suggested to represent one of the exogamic groups of the Nenets, the other being Харючи. (Chomič 1976: 102–103; Dolgich 1970: 9–14; Tereščenko 2003: 41–42) Валей Valej. Corresponds to TN Валейской, Валеев. According to Dolgich, Valej is descended from Вэли (Вэʹʹли). Вэли represents one of the six main branches of the Nenets families. Again according to Chomič, the Вэли are a sub-branch of the Vanjuita. (Chomič 1976: 103; Dolgich 1980: 9–10; 55–59; Tereščenko 2003: 38) Тiунскаго Tiunskij refers to the Timanskij or Timan tundra; see notes [Timan tundra, Малая земля (Laptah)] and [Kaninska]. и «ej mera» Тиманскаго (берегов) «ej mera» Chatanzejskij Vyučejskoj Vanujti Valej In (the shores of) Tiunsk and «not any more» Timan «not any more» Samojed-skatten The natives had paid the tribute (Ru yasak) in furs since the colonisation of the North and Siberia. Furs were one of the main exports of Russia and vital for the Empire’s economy. A regular amount of tax, consisting of both money and furs, was set after the 1822 Regulation for the administration of the natives or Speranskijʼs reform (Ustav ob upravlenii inorodcev). The 1835 law “On the administration of Samoyeds living in the Mezen’ district of the Arkhangel’sk region” (Ustav ob upravlenii samoedami, obitajuščimi v Mezenskom uezde Arxangelʹskoj gubernii) is roughly parallel to Speranskij’s reform, but concerns the Nenets living in the European Arctic. (Bachrušin 1955: 49–85; Forsyth 1992: 38–42; 156 Damešek & Remnev 2007 (eds.): 215-235) är nu 3 Rub 30 kop, förut 3R, 30 och för friska personer dessutom 2 hudar af ren eller псець. Ru pesec TN ңохо ʻArctic fox’ (Alopex lagopus Linnaeus). äfven sjuklingar betalte 3 Rub. 30 kop. The Samoyed tax is at the moment 3 roubles 30 kopecks, formerly 3R 30 and additionally two reindeer hides or псець for a healthy person. The sick also paid 3 roubles 30 kopecks.
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Samojedernes antal i Mesenska kretsen: See [Mezen uezd]. The number of Samoyeds in the Mezen' uezd I. Устцылемскаго ведомства Большеземельских крещен ныхъ I. Under the administration of Ust-Cylem, Bolshezemelsk Christians 1) въ числе Хатанзейскаго рода Chatanzejskij 110 2) Выучейскаго Vyučejskij 51 161 II. Ижемскаго Ведомства ясашныхь II. Under the administration of Izhem, yasak payers Rubel Roubles 1. Хатанзейскаго Chatanzejskij 213 204 2. Валей Valej 81 82 3. Ванюты Vanjuty 101 92 4. Выучейскаго Vyucejskij 10 11 5. Хатанзеискаго Chatanzejskij 24 23 6. Валей Valej 37 30 7 Хатанзеискаго Chatanzejskij 14 5 480 447 III. Тiунскаго л. Тиманского береговъ III. Tiuskii or Timan Coast 304 296 Канинскаго Берега Kanin Coast 354 357 658 653 Rubel Roubles Всего по Мезенссскому уезду Самоедов Total number of Samoyeds in the Mezen' uezd 2330 1245 Всего по Мезенск. уезду крестьянъ Total number of peasants in the Mezen\ uezd 10430 11566
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1. Pustoserka Sloboden 1. Under the administration of Pustozersk Skattbetalande Number of taxpayers Тыссiи 312 Ноготыссiи 181 Локейскаго 343 Выучейскаго 92 Хатанзеискаго 927 Ванюты Ischemska Sloboden. Хатанзейскаго 251 Ванюты 101 Выучейсскаго 10 Валей 109 480 Тiунскаго и Тиманскаго берега Устьцылемскаго ведомства. Хатанзейскаго 110 Выучеискаго 51 161 II. Тiунскаго или Тимианскаго береговъ III.
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II. Tiунскаго или Тиманскаго береговъ alla ätter tillsammantagne utgörs 379. III. Канинской тундры Tillsamman 429 Anm[ärka]. Dessa utgöra de skattbetalandes antal för år 1843. Alla samtlige 2377 skattbt. / Köppen Peter von Köppen (Pëtr Ivanovič Kèppen, 1793–1864), a statistician and cartographer, who worked with ethnographic maps during the 19th century (Suchova 1993; Gibson 2022: 49–97). According to Köppen, there were 2390 Samoyed men and 2105 Samoyed women and in total 4495 Samoyed in the area between Cape Kanin and the Urals (Köppen 1843: 59). 2390./ II. Total number consisting of all the tribes at the shores of Timan 379 III. Total number in Kanin tundra 429. Note. This is the number of taxpayers in 1843. Total 2377 taxpayers.
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Kaninska Samojeder äro rikare än Timanska, Before the mid-19th century, when Castrén was travelling in the European Arctic, large-scale nomadic reindeer herding was developing fast, but, as shown by Krupnik (1976; 1993: 171–80), it never meant a stable number of reindeer herds, but rather there was a constant change in the number of herds as a result of ecological, political, and economic factors. In addition, it is important to note that instead of a total shift, there were always herders with fewer reindeer, which also means more reliance on fishing and hunting. The Kanin and Timan Nenets seem to have shifted to a pastoralist economy before the Bolʹšezemelʹskaja ones, which is why they also had more reindeer in the early 19th century. (See Tuisku 1999: 58–65; Stammler 2005: 62–66; Anderson 2014; Stepanoff et al. 2017; Dolgich 1970: 23–25.) de der åter äro mycket fattiga. Rika Samojj[eder]. i Kanin hafver ändå till 2000 renar, få hafva blott 2 eller 3, haf- va så många, omkring 10 hafva 1000, många 5-600 fattiga hafva 25-50. Bland Timanska Samojeder hafva blott 2 eller 3 pers. 500 Samojj. The number of reindeer is one indicator of the development of a large-scale pastoralist reindeer economy. The variation in the sizes of the herds is not only a marker of economic stratification, but rather indicates that there were different kinds of economic strategies among the Nenets. Those who owned only a few reindeer used them as draught animals and focused on fishing and hunting, and were most probably hired by Russian or Komi merchants. With a few hundred reindeer, one could live by selling hunting products, whereas with thousands of reindeer, there was a possibility of living on reindeer products alone. (See Krupnik 1976.) As noted recently, the number of reindeer not only gave prestige and enabled movement but also tied the large-scale reindeer herders to the tundra and the herd (Golovnev 2004; Stepanoff et al. 2017). It is rather perplexing how fast the combination of large herds and the ability to move in the tundra became emblematic of the Nenets way of life, TN ненэй илеңгана, although pastoralism was still developing in the early 19th century. This is most probably related to the prestige related to large herds, but also their value in exchange and in hunting (Stepanoff et al. 2017). Additionally, there is a tendency in 19th-century explorers, such as Castrén, to describe reindeer herding as the emblematic and immemorial form of subsistence, which for a long time obscured the transition that was taking place. (For the development of reindeer herding, see also Losey et al. 2021; Anderson et al. 2019; Stépanoff 2017.) [Samojeder] Desse fiska allmänt under sommaren mest i sjöar mindre i floder, hvartill fordras dyra redskap, båtar, mat m.m. minst i hafvet. Fishing has a significant role in Nenets subsistence. Fishing is focused on the rivers and lakes, and is especially important for the communities living near large rivers such as the Pečora, Pur, and Nadym. Fishing is carried out with the help of seines, nets, traps, and weirs. It is important for food, but also for extra income. In the 19th century, Nenets also worked as fishermen for Russian merchants and were part of fishing communities; see note [af andra Samojj.] and [Mezen merchants]. (Chomič 1966: 78–80.) Deras renar bevakas under ti- den af andra Samojj[eder]. The Nenets formed communities called Ru parma, TN парм (reindeer herding) or Ru edoma, TN нядʹʹма (fishing and hunting sea mammals) in order to manage their seasonal hunting and fishing practices. According to Maslov, the communities were of close or more distant descent and often included both rich and poor families in terms of reindeer. During fishing and hunting, the reindeer herds were left within the larger herds of communities with more reindeer. (Maslov 1934; Terleckij 1934; Tuisku 1999: 82–83; similar in the Taz (Forest Nenets) region; see Lehtisalo 1956: LV–LVI.) Kaninska Samojeder fi- ska ej, somliga skjuta морскихъ зверей i floder neml. тюлены, Ru tjulenʹ, TN явʹ сармик, няк ʻseal’. нерпа, Ru nerpa, TN няк ʻringed seal’ (Phoca hispida Schreber). заеца. Ru morskij zajac, TN ңартиʹ ʻbearded seal’ (Erignathus barbatus Erxleben). Om vintern skjuta de färdes Timanska och Kaninska Samojeder s[a]mt Ryska till hafvet, med lodjor Ru lad’ja or lod’ja is a wooden sailing and fishing vessel with pole masts and oars. The lodjas, together with larger karbas vessels, were widely used by the Pomors (MES 1991: lad’ja). mellan is, skjuta моржевъ, Ru morž, TN тивтей ʻwalrus’ (Odobenus rosmarus Linnaeus). заецей, лысуни, Ru lysun (also Grenlandskij tyulenʹ), TN няк ʻGreenland seal’ (Phoca groenlandica Erxleben). нерпи, белуги A maritime economy, which was practised in the 17th century by communities living on the Arctic seashores, had disappeared by the 18th century, only to undergo a revival at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Krupnik has proposed that the hunting of sea mammals in the 19th-century European Arctic was mainly a joint practice of the Nenets and the Russian Pomors, which is also implied by Castrén. Consequently, this does not represent the earlier indigenous maritime economy, but a seasonal practice based on commercial and collective hunting. (Krupnik 1993: 202–210) Kaninska och Timanska fånga om vintern псецъ, Ru pesec, TN ңохо ʻArctic fox’ (Alopex lagopus Linnaeus). ли- сица, волки Ru volk, ТN сармик ʻwolf’ (Canis lupus Linnaeus). (litet); Timanska fånga äfven björnar och vildrenar, samt куници The Kanin Samoyeds are richer than those of Timan, who again are very poor. The rich Samoyeds in Kanin own up to 2000 reindeer, a few have only two or three, about ten [Nenets] have 1000, many have 5-600, and the poor own 25-50. Among the Timan Samoyeds only two or three persons own 500 [reindeer]. These Samoyeds commonly fish during the summer, mostly in lakes, less so in rivers, for which expensive equipment, boats, food, etc., is required; the least [fishing is done] in the sea. Their reindeer are guarded during the time [of the fishing] by other Samoyeds. The Kanin Samoyeds do not fish; some shoot sea mammals, in other words seals (seal, ringed seal, and bearded seal). In winter the Timan and Kanin Samoyeds and the Russians travel to the sea, using lodya boats to move through ice, and shoot walruses, seals, and whales. In winter the Kanin and Timan [Samoyeds] hunt Arctic foxes, foxes, and wolves (a little); the Timan also hunt bears and wild reindeer, as well as pine martens. Bolshezemelska Samojeder äro öfverhufvud genom renor fattigare, men rikare genom sina öfriga närings- grenor. Om sommaren fånga de fisk mest i flo- der och i hafvet (Хаибадра, Chajpudyr Bay, situated on the western side of the Yugor Peninsula. N68°30′14″ E59°31′54″ Варандея, Varandej Bay, situated on the western side of the Yugor Peninsula. N68°44′53″ E57°59′48″ Коратаеха The River Korotaicha flows into the Pečora Sea on the west coast of the Yugor Peninsula. (GVR) Кара), The River Kara flows into Kara Bay on the east coast of the Yugor Peninsula. According to Schrenk, TN ”Harájjagha oder Harájagha, d.i. der bugreiche Fluss [Хараяга]” (GVR) (Schrenk 1848: 463; Šrenk 2009: 312) mindre i sjöar och i hafvet. Om sommaren fara de на море och fånga skjuta моржи, заеци, нерпы, белуги Ru belucha, ТN вэбарка ʻwhite whale, beluga’ (Delphinapterus leucas Pallas). (mindre), hvita björnar (på is), vildren finnas och fångas obetydligt. Om vintern fånga de ock горные fög[lar]., псецъ лисица, Ru lisica, ТN тëня ʻfox’ (Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus). волкъ, куници. Ru (sosnovaja) kunica, TN иңгней ʻpine marten’ (Martes martes Linnaeus). The Bol'šezemel'ja Samoyeds are in general poorer when it comes to reindeer, but richer when it comes to their other sources of livelihood. In the summer they fish, mostly in the rivers and in the sea (the Chaibadra, Varandeja, Korataecha, Kara), less so in the lakes and in the sea. In the summer they travel to the sea and shoot walruses, seals, whales (smaller ones), and polar bears (on the ice); there are wild reindeer, but hunting them is insignificant. In winter they also hunt mountain birds, Arctic foxes, foxes, wolves, and pine martens.
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De Samojeder, som under vinter idka hafsfiske, nomadise rа äfven med sina renar vid hafvet. Those Samoyeds who during the winter are engaged in sea fishing also live with their reindeer by the sea. Kaninska Samojeder meta navaga Ru navaga, TN наваңа ʻnavaga’. (Eleginus nawaga). om hösten under is i floder, göra af bly en maschin af följ[ande]. utseende. Description and picture missing. Navaga metas om hösten, är mager om vintern. The Kanin Samoyeds fish for navaga with a seine in the autumn under the river ice; they make a device of lead with the following appearance [description and picture missing]. Navaga are fished for with a seine in the autumn; they are lean in the winter. Om sommaren fånga ock några få i floder камбала Ru kambala, TN пелха ʻEuropean plaice’ (Pleuronectes platessa). och голци Ru golec, TN няңгэхей ʻArctic char’ (Salvelinus alpinus). med nät. In the summer some also catch European plaice and Arctic char with nets in the rivers. Om vintern fångar man псецъ fjällracka, лисицъ (räfvor), utan medelst skydd äfven med кулома (Ijenguh), Most probably TN еся яңго ‘foothold trap’, literally ʻiron trap’. Trapping was practised from November to March, when the fox fur was at its most beautiful and valuable. The traps were set just under the snow so that the bait, seal, lemming, or fat, would be below the wind. Often, the front leg was trapped. Foxes were also trapped with dead-fall and cage traps (пя яңго) and through communal hunting, in which a group of foxes was driven to an open space, for example a frozen lake cover, and then shot. (Chomič 1966: 66-68.) som är alldeles lik en råttfälla, blott något större. In winter Arctic foxes and foxes are also hunted with traps such as kuloma (Ijenguh), which are very similar to a rat trap, only slightly bigger. Fattiga Samojeder kunna ej sysselsätta sig med промышление i hafvet eme- dan härtill fordras båtar, fock och andra stora anstalter, redskap m.m. Om det händes, att hösten är våt ocj slaskig och om derpå följes stränga froster, så kunna Samojederne ej qvarstadna till vintern vid Kanin Nos. Här är landet mycket lågt uch sankt, emedan samlar sig på tundran, och efter frosten kunna renarna ej för-skaffa sig bete. Poor Samoyeds are unable to engage in seafaring activities, because it requires boats, a headsail and other major preparations, equipment, etc. If it happens that the autumn is wet and sloppy and therefore there are severe frosts, the Samoyeds cannot stay on the Kanin Peninsula until winter. The country is very low and boggy, and that is why [the frost] accumulates on the tundra, and after the frost the reindeer cannot find food. Wid Kanin Nos finnes треска, men man kan här ej fånga den, emedan här ej kutterna äro mycket grunda, och långre ut finnes ej ej hamn, inga öar, intet skydd mot storm och oväder, der, som ofta inträffas. There are cod off the shores of Kanin Nos, but you cannot catch them here, because the bays are not very shallow, and further out there are no harbours, no islands, no protection against storms and bad weather, which often occur.
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Timanska tundran (Тиманскiй берегъ) Timanskij bereg refers to the Timan tundra. It is a plain stretching from the River Pëša to Pečora Bay. (NAO-ES: 154, 256–257) är till större delen bevuxen med svag björkskog. Denna tundra börjar från floden Nes och sträcker sig till Petshora. Landet är lågt, tufvigt. Här finnes och berg, Ти- манскiй каменъ, som består af синiй каменъ. I bergsklyftor finnes slipsten. Från Nes till Petshora räknas omkr[ing]. 450 verst. Innevanarne på dna[denna] tundra, som vid sista revision utg[öres]. 450 själar mk.[människor], lifnära sig vår och sommar af fiske i sjöar och floder, haf här finnes i mgd[mängd]. De fånga sik, Ru sig, TN палкурʹ ʻEuropean whitefish’ (Coregonus lavaretus). gädda, TN сяторэй ʻNorthern pike’ (Esox lucius). пеледа, Ru pelyadʹ (also syrok), TN пайха ʻpeled’ (Coregonus peled). голциа, кумжа. Ru kumža ʻbrown trout’ (Salmon trutta). Om hösten meta de navaga. The Timan tundra (Timanskij bereg) consists for the most part of low birch forest. The area begins at the River Nes and extends to the River Petshora. The country is low, with hummocks, and there is also a mountain, Timanskij kamenʹ, which is formed of blue stone. In ravines, there are grindstones. From the Nes to the Petshora it is approximately 450 versts. The residents of the tundra, according to the last revision 450 souls, subsist in the spring and summer on catching fish in the lakes and rivers and the ocean, which are abundant here. They fish for whitefish, pike, peled, golica, and trout. In the autumn, they seine for navaga. Om vintern fånga de fillfraser och räfvar, i ringa mängd. Pustoserska bönder och Mesenska borgare Commercial hunting of sea mammals and fur-bearing animals and fishing were mainly a joint practice of the Nenets and the Russian Pomors in the 19th-century European Arctic. The communities that managed seasonal hunting and fishing practices (Ru edoma, TN нядʹʹма) were based on intraethnic family ties and long-term interethnic cooperation. The Nenets were usually hired by Russian merchants. Alternatively, there were also permanent, transgenerational commercial relations between the Nenets and Pomors, who would regularly buy Nenets hunting and fishing products. (Lepëchin 1805: 223; Schrenk 1848: 487-492; Krupnik 1993; Maslov 1934; Terleckij 1934; Lašuk 1958: 120–134 Lehtisalo 1956: XXXIX–LVII; 1959: 87–88) leja dem att föra sina foro foror (särdeles fisk) till Jul-marknaden The seasonal markets were central commercial, social, and entertainment events in the area and the Nenets visited them regularly in order to trade, pay the tribute, socialise, and go to church. Nenets visiting the Mezenʹ market were already mentioned in one of the earliest written sources concerning the Nenets, on April 15th 1545, “Order with no conviction, to Kanin ja Tiusk Samoyeds” (<>Žalovannaja nesudimaja gramota Kaninskim i Tiuskim Samoedam), where, to be precise, the market is said to take place in the village of Lampožnja, near Mezenʹ. The market was set to take place in early January at the end of the 18th century and it was called the Epiphany Market (Kreščenskaja jarmarka). Other important markets in the European Arctic took place in Pustozersk, Ustʹ-Cilʹma, and Ižma, and later also in Nesʹ. (Okladnikov 2009: 306–322; See also Castrén 2019: 463–464) i Mesen. In the winter, they hunt Arctic foxes and foxes in small numbers. The Pustozersk peasants and the Mezen merchants hire them to bring their loads (especially fish) to the Christmas market in Mezen. Bolshesemelska tundran sträcker sig åter från Petshora omkr[ing]. 1000 verst till Ural. Landet är vid hafskusten lågt. Ini landet finnas höga berg,från hka[hvilka] löpa flere floder. bland dem äro mest anmärkningsvärda: 1) Коротаика, omkr[ing]. 700 verst fr[ån]. Pustosersk, der man om hösten fångar omuler (o-мылъ), Ru omulʹ, TN явʹ халя ʻ Arctic cisco’ (Coregonus autumnalis). 2) Kara, som utgör gränsen emellan Mesenska kretsen och den Beresovska kretsen The town or fort (ostrog) of Berezov was founded in 1593 as a stronghold of Russian colonisation. From then on, it served as one of the most important points of governing in the West Siberian North. As the newly colonised territories of Siberia were geographically organised under administrative units called uezd at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Berezov uezd took care of the westernmost regions. It was also called okrug and komissarstvo. (Alekseev (ed.) 2010: 35, 42, 44.) i Sibirien. På dna[denna] sidan om floden finnes Bolshesemel ska Samojeder, på den andra Karatsheja. Karačejskie samojedy or Karačejskaja samojadʹ derived from the Tundra Nenets name Харючи and denotes a large group of Nenets living in the Polar Urals, Yamal Peninsula, and regions east of the River Ob’. See [Karatseja] [Karatseja] Desse sednare fiska om sommaren i särskilda floder och sjöar, äflas äfven med hafsfång. Om vintern fånga ock räfvar, fil- frisar, skjuta äfven vargar med bössar och med bågar. Hermeliner och räfvar fångar man med fällor, klde[kallade] Мыкуломой, sätter till bete ren-talg. Bolshsem[elska]. Samojeder taga 2, 3-7 hustrur, efter råd och förmögenhet. Köpa sina hustrur och betala för dem 40-100 renar. De skiljas ock vid sina hustrun och hvardera parten gifter sig för andra gången. If a man was able to take care of a bigger family, he might take another wife. See [Samojeden kan taga] The Bolshemelskaja tundra extends from the River Petshora for around 1000 versts to the Ural Mountains. The land is low on the sea coast. Inland there are high mountains, from which several rivers flow. The most notable among them are: 1) the Korotaika, around 700 versts from Pustozersk, where omuls (omylʹʹ) are caught in the autumn, and 2) the Kara, which forms the boundary between the Mezen uezd and the Berezov uezd in Siberia. On this side of the river, there are Bolshezemelskaja Samoyeds, on the other Karatshej [Samoyeds]. The latter fish in the summer in distinct rivers and lakes, and they also practise sea fishing. In winter, they hunt Arctic foxes and foxes and also shoot wolves with guns and bows. Ermine and foxes are caught with traps, called Mykulomoj; reindeer fat is used as bait. The Bolshezemelskaja Samoyeds take two or three to seven wives, depending on their wealth. [They] buy their wives and pay 40-100 reindeer for them. They also get divorced from their wives and each party can marry for a second time.
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Samojeder och Ryssar skjuta räfvar, Fox furs were one of the most significant items in trade and taxation. They were hunted with different kinds of traps, such as snares and foothold traps, and with crossbows. (Chomič 1966: 70–71) vargar och andra djur på följ. vis: Man gör af snö en fyrkant sig - ett rum Man gör af snö ett rum till formen en fyrkant och så stort, att en mska[människa] beqvämt kan ligga derstädes. Wid ena ändan af anstalten finnes en öppnung hvarigenom skytten kryper in i rummet, som han efter ingången betäcker. På andra sidan finnas i hvardera hör- net ett litet hål, genom hka[hvilka] skytten lurar på och skjuter villdjuret, som lockas till stället genom utfall beten, af skjälkött, renkött m.m. The Samoyeds and Russians shoot foxes, wolves, and other animals in the following manner: one makes a square shaped-room of snow. The room is made so large that a man can comfortably lie there. At one end of the building there is an opening through which the shooter crawls into the room, which he covers after entering. On the other side, in each corner, there is a small hole, through which the shooter lurks and shoots wild animals which are attracted to the place with the help of baits such as seal and reindeer meat. Räfvar Fattiga Timanska Samojeder fånga vildren om våren, mindre om hösten i skogiga trakter, om- kring floden Mesen. Man fångar vildrenen med skytte, stundom äfven med snaror. - På tundran finns ej vildren. Likaså fånga Timm[Timanska]. och äfven andra Samojj.[Samojeder] dels med bössa, dels i gropar. Before the development of a pastoralist reindeer economy, hunting wild reindeer provided the Nenets with food, materials for the tent, clothing, and utensils such as rope. They are still hunted, but on a lesser scale. Wild reindeer could be hunted collectively or individually. It took place on the customary migration routes of the reindeer or in their autumn pastures. In collective hunting the reindeer were driven to specifically built corridors and shot in the narrower part of the corridor. Additionally, reindeer were speared when they were crossing rivers during the migration. Individually, the wild reindeer could be killed in a chase or with the help of reindeer that was used to attract them or by using crossbows together with a tripwire. (Haakansson 2000; Fëdorova 2016; Anderson et al. 2019) På Timanska tundran finns här och der i skogiga trakter björnar, The Nenets are known to have hunted both polar bears (TN сэрʹ варк) and brown bears (TN варк) and, as noted by Chomič, there seem to have been regulations and restrictions related to brown bears but not so much to the polar ones, although the polar bear was considered sacred. The polar bear was hunted mainly for its fur and fat. (Lehtisalo 1924: 50–53; Lehtisalo 1956: 181b; Chomič 1966: 69–70; 135) i synnerhet vid floden Pjosja. Men de äro af spakt lynne, gå med boskap i bete, utan att skada dem. The Nenets are known to have hunted both polar bears (TN сэрʹ варк) and brown bears (TN варк) and, as noted by Chomič, there seem to have been regulations and restrictions related to brown bears but not so much to the polar ones, although the polar bear was considered sacred. The polar bear was hunted mainly for its fur and fat. (Lehtisalo 1924: 50–53; Lehtisalo 1956: 181b; Chomič 1966: 69–70; 135) Foxes The poor Timan Samoyeds hunt wild reindeer in the spring, less so in the autumn, in wooded areas around the River Mesen. Wild reindeer are shot and sometimes also snared. – There are no wild reindeer on the tundra. Similarly, the Timan and also other Samoyeds hunt partly with rifles, partly with the help of pits. Bears can be found here and there in the Timan tundra’s wooded areas, especially by the River Pjosja. Nevertheless, they are calm-tempered, and graze with cattle without harming them.
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På Kanin Nos finnas vinter-tiden få Samojeder, ty landet är litet och renmossa saknas. «Landet är vid hafsstränderna sankt, och då mycket snö l. regn faller om hösten, lägger sig öfverallt en tjock isskorpa, som hindrar renarne att uppgräfva mossan.» There are few Samoyeds on Kanin Nos during the wintertime because the land is small and there is no reindeer moss. «The land is mossy by the sea shores, and when it is snowing or raining a lot in the autumn, a thick ice crust settles everywhere, and it prevents the reindeer from digging moss.» Somliga stadna der utan renar och idka under vintern hafsfångst. För öfrigt vistas äfven den Kaninska tundrans be- byggare under vintern vid den Timanska stranden. Some stay there without reindeer and practise sea fishing during the winter. The rest of the residents of the Kanin tundra stay on the Timan shore during the winter. På Kanin Nos drifves fånge öfverallt vid hafvet, men förnämligast på venstra sidan om Kap Mikulkin, der fångsten är mycket gifvande. At Kanin Nos, they hunt everywhere in the sea, but mainly on the left-hand side of Cape Mikulkin, where the catch is very rewarding. Ryssarna idka hafsfånge med stora båtar (карбасъ), Ru karbas TN харбас is a Russian, especially Pomor vessel with oars and sails. They were used both as river and sea vessels for fishing and hunting sea mammals. (Lepëchin 1805: 10–11; ESBE 1895: 472-473 (karbasʹʹ)) som ros af 8, 12-16 personer. De taga i sin sold mest Samo- jeder och betala dem antingen contacter eller gifva en del af fångsten. Wanligtvis stå Samojederne i skuld Several sources mention the incurring of debts among the indigenous peoples, including the Nenets, in relation to taxation and trade. The indigenous peoples themselves had been complaining about misconduct since at least 1682. On commercial fishing, see note [017. Mezen merchants]. (Schrenk 1848: 487-492; Islavin 1847: 54–66; Lehtisalo 1956: LVIII–LIX; 1959: 87–88; Forsyth 1992: 158–163; Alekseev (ed.) 2010: 101; Latkin: 106–107; 121–122) hos Ryssar och aftjena härigenom skulden. The Russians engage in sea hunts with large boats (karbasʹʹ), which are rowed by eight or 12-16 people. They hire mostly Samoyeds and pay them either in cash or by giving them a part of the catch. Usually, the Samoyeds are in debt to the Russians and they are settling their debt. Somliga rika Samojeder hafva dylika båtar, men de fattigare, som fiska på egen hand, idka fånge med små båtar, som kunna ros af 2ne[tvenne] personer, i hafs- vikar. Some rich Samoyeds have such boats, but the poorer ones, who fish on their own, practise sea hunting with small boats that are rowed by two men in the bays. Man fångar: 1. тюленъ, hvaraf finnas tre slag a) нерпа af annan родъ b) лысунъ c) серка. Ru serka ʻGreenland seal’ (Phoca groenlandica Erxleben). Young Greenland seals with gray skin are called serka in Russian. They hunt: 1. seal, of which there are three kinds: a) ringed seal b) Greenland seal c) serka. 2. мосркiй заецъ, 3. белуга 4. моржъ, 5. косатка Ru kosatka ʻorca’ (Orcinus orca) 6. Оскуй Oskuj derives from the Komi ош ʻbear’. TN сэр” варк. See [Kyvkud] (isbjörn) 2. bearded seal, 3. whale 4. walrus, 5. orca. 6. Oskuj (polar bear)
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Näset Savoinoj Nos är mycket smalt. Här plägas Samojj[eder]. om hösten jaga med renar псецъ till [yttersta] yttersta ändan af näset. Somliga skjutas, andra klubbas i vattnet, der de klubbas. - Псецъ lifnärer sig af морскиiй зверъ och uppehåller sig i mängd vid hafvet. Cape Savoinoj Nos is very narrow. The Samoyeds tend to hunt Arctic foxes and reindeer at the very end of the cape in the autumn. Some are shot, others are hammered [should be: driven] into the water, where they are clubbed. The Arctic foxes eat sea mammals and reside in abundance by the sea. Liksom Lappar vilja ej Samojeder försälja något åt en främmande, The commercial contacts were permanent and based on transgenerational continuity. See [Mezen merchants] om han förut genom brännvin ej gjort sig till vän. Svarta räfvar försälja rika Samojj[eder]. ej för ngt[någonting], ehuru de skola hafva dem uppstapplade i stora högar. Like the Lapps, the Samoyeds do not want to sell anything to a stranger if he has not previously made himself a friend through vodka. Rich Samoyeds do not sell black fox skins for anything, although they can have them stacked in great heaps. På Waigats fångas Sam[ojeder] om sommaren моржи - skjuta de på is (utan karbas) Моржи sofva på is - äro fredliga, se mskan[människan] men ligga de oaktad. Om sommaren fångas ock нерпы s[a]mt заеци. Hvita björnar finnas här om sommaren ej, gå till sommaren på fasta landet. In Vaigatsh, the Samoyeds hunt walruses in the summer; they shoot them on the ice (without karbas). The walruses sleep on the ice – they are peaceful, they see man, but they lie indifferently. In the summer seals are also hunted, as well as bearded seals. There are no polar bears here in the summer; they go to the mainland in the summer.
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Samojederne samlas vid Pustosersk Jul-tiden för att afyttra sina hudar och skinvaror eller dermed be- tala sin skulld åt Ryssar, samt förse sig med mjöl, krut, bly och andra förnödenheter. Wid den- na tillfälle samlar starschinan Ru staršina ʻchief’. The tribute paid in furs, yasak, was habitually collected by the head of the family, who disbursed them in the administrative centres. After the 1822/1835 reform (see [044. yasak]), this customary system became legally regulated. In Siberia, the chiefs were occasionally called princes, Ru knjažec, a practice dating back to before the Russian conquest. (Perevalova 2019; Lëzova 2000; Forsyth 1992: 28–47; Alekseev (ed.) 2010: 117–136) deras skatt, utgörande omkring 3,30 Rub[el] Arf för hvarje Samo- jed. Efter 2 veckors fylleri begifva de sig åter till hafvet. During Christmastime the Samoyeds gather in Pustozersk in order to sell their hides and skins or to pay back their debts to the Russians, as well as to provide for themselves flour, gunpowder, lead, and other necessities.Their leader collects taxes on the same occasion, about 3.30 roubles for each Samoyed. After two weeks of drunkenness, they go back to the sea. På Timanska och Kaninska tundran fara star- schina omkring och samla skatten. In the Timan and Kanin tundras, the leader travels around to collect the tax.
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På ön Kolgujeff Kolguev (TN Холгов). Castrén’s knowledge represents a typical example of second-hand information on Kolguev, which as an island was seldom visited by outsiders. Nenets families had possibly already moved to the island in the late 18th century, but during the 19th, several families definitely settled on Kolguev. Moving onto the island and living there was based on mutual relations with Russian merchants and Pomors, with whom the Nenets had contracts over herding reindeer and trade. (Lepëchin 1805: 193–196 Trevor-Battye 2004; Podekrat 1936: 73; Chomič 1966: 17, n11; Lukin 2011: 25–33) lefva flere Samojeder, nomadiserande med renhjordar och idkande hafsfånge. Sina renar öfverföra de om sommaren med båtar. Hafsfån- get och landsfånget är här forträffligt. På landet fångas псеци, hvita björnar (som gå på hafvet och land), (räfvar mycket litet, en sällsynthet och wargar litet.) Ryssar föra dit mjöl och andra förnödenheter, ty de som bo der, röra sig sällan d[eri]från. Ifrån Sv[jatoi]. Nos fördas man på en dag med segel, från Kolokolsk[aja]. Guba på ett dygn. Här finnes en bergsträckning, som löper från sydvest till no[rr]. På södra sidan är berget lägre, höjer sig och går brant i hafvet på mots[att]. sidan. On the island of Kolguev there are several living, nomadising with reindeer herds and practising sea hunting. They transfer the reindeer by boats in the summer. Sea and land hunting is rewarding here. On the land, they hunt Arctic foxes, polar bears (which walk on the sea and land), very few foxes, which are a rarity, and a few wolves. The Russians bring flour and other necessities there, as those who live there rarely travel away [to the mainland]. One can go there in a day by sailing from Svjatoi Nos, 24 hours from Kolokolskaja Guba. There is a mountain range running from the south-west to the north. It is lower on the southern side of the mountains, where the mountain is lower; on the opposite side the land rises and goes steeply into the sea. Likasom de Kaninska och Timanska, så syssels[ätta]. sig äfven de Pustoserska Samojj[eder]. med hafsfånge. De Ishemska Ru ižemskie samojedy ʻIžma Nenets’ (Dronova & Istomin 2003; Habeck 2005) See [Kaninska]. hålla sig utesl.[uteslutande] till renskötseln, nomadisera sydligare, i skogiga trakten. Similarly to the Kanin and Timan [Samoyeds], the Pustozersk Samoyeds also practise sea hunting. The Ishem [Samoyeds] keep themselves only by herding reindeer, and nomadise in more southern, wooded areas.
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Bolshe-Semelska Samojeder lyda under tre voloster: Pu- stosersk, Ischma och Ustsylimsk. Alla Samojj[eder]. byta upp om hösten från hafvet, och färdas små- ningom en hvar till sin volost, der de träffa kring Jul; för betala der sin jasak, förse sig med mjöl, krut, bly, smor, mjölk, snart afyttra renhudar, samt andra djurskinn, förja- ga sig åter till hafvet. The Bolshezemelskaja Samoyeds are subject to three volosts: Pustozersk, Izhma, and Ustsylimsk. All the Samoyeds move away from the sea in the autumn, and travel little by little to their own volosts, where they meet around Christmastime, to pay there their yasak tax, provide themselves with flour, gunpowder, lead, butter, and milk, to quickly sell reindeer hides, as well as other animal skins, and return to the sea. Uusa och Petschora, Ob och andra strora elfvar kls[kallas] af Sam[ojeder]. jam, haf. TN ям’ ʻsea’. As noted, the Nenets use ямʹ to refer to large rivers, e.g. Санэроʹʹ ямʹ (or Санэроʹʹ яха) ʻRiver Pečora’, Саля ямʹ ʻRiver Obʹ. The Uusa and Petschora, Ob, and other great rivers are called jam ‘sea’ by the Samoyeds.
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Fattiga Samojeder fiska dels i sjöar och floder om sommaren, dels äflas med hafs- fånge. Poor Samoyeds partly fish in lakes and rivers in the summer, and partly practise sea hunting. Rika Samojeder, på BS[Bolshezemelskaja tundran], som äflas med hafsfånge kunna blott taga med sig ett ringa antal renar, emedan der ej finnas tillräcklig mossa. In the Bolshezemelskaja tundra, those rich Samoyeds who practise sea hunting can take only a small number of reindeer with them [to the seashore], because there is not enough reindeer moss. I Januari och Februari idkas på Bolshes[emelskaja]. tundran ej hafsfånge (för stormer?) In January and February sea hunting is not practised in the Bolshesemelskaja tundra (because of storms?) De som under vinter ej drifva hafsfången fånga горные зверы. Those who do not hunt sea mammals during the winter hunt land mammals. Högst sju eller åtta fånga på en båt, minst 4. Den hvars båten är behåller tvenne delar af fångsten, en för sig, en för båten. Fångas нерпа (om vintern obetydligt, mest om vår och höst - den släpper om sommaren ej när sig, men om vår och höst sofver hon på isen och är lätt afkomlig), заецъ och моржъ - dessa skjutas, eller först med kroken, М[орский]. Заецъ skjutes och tages med nosok Ru nosok ʻharpoon’. ur vattnet; моржъ tages först med nosok, så med spjut. Морж skjutes sällan emedan ders hud ej trängs af kulan. Bä- There can be a maximum of seven or eight hunters in a boat, at least four. The one who owns the boat keeps two parts of the catch, one for himself, one for the boat. They hunt ringed seals (in winter insignificant, mostly in spring and autumn – they do not let hunters near them in the summer, but in spring and autumn they sleep on the ice and are easily approached), bearded seals, and walruses – with a hook. Bearded seals are shot and taken out of the water with a harpoon a walrus is taken first with a harpoon, them with a spear. Walruses are seldom shot because a bullet cannot penetrate their skin.
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luger fånga Samojeder ej, de ega här ej redskap - nåt af tåg. The Samoyeds do not hunt beluga whales; they have no equipment – rope nets – for it. Syrjänerne uppehålla sig blott den besätte sommar=tiden vid hafvet, emedan renarne ej uthärda hettan i skogen. Andra tider nomadi- sera de i skogiga trakter vid Uusa och ders bifloder (se handl[ingen].) Presumably, Castrén is referring to his own texts about the reindeer-herding Komi, the so-called Ižma Komi. See Castrén 2019: 517–523. The Syrians only reside by the sea in the summertime, because the reindeer cannot endure the heat in the forest. At other times they nomadise in the wooded areas around the River Uusa and its tributaries (see document.) Om sommaren komma till tundror- na en otrolig myckenhet gäss för att rugga, svanor i mindre antal. In the summer an incredible number of geese come to the tundra to mate, swans in smaller numbers. På tundrorna ufinnas möss och rottor af olika slag. There are different kinds of mice and rats in the tundra. Bland foglor är snöripan utesl.[uteslutande] tundran tillhög.[tillhörig] The willow grouse is the only bird that belongs to the tundra. Träd på tundran finnas ej - utom qwarters höga björkbuskar, som ej duga till brän- sle, som Samojj[eder]. måste skaffa från långt afständ och ofta föra med sig de vid hafvet, ställa de med med sig och samla drif-ved. There are no trees in the tundra – except birch bushes a quarter of a metre high, which are not suitable for burning. The Samoyeds have to obtain firewood from a long distance and they often drive by the sea, settle there, and collect driftwood. Bär på tundran: hjortron i ofantlig mkenh[myckenhet], som Samojj[eder]. om sommaren samla Berries in the tundra: cloudberries in immense quantities. The Samoyeds gather them in the summer
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till vintern och förvara i tunnor kråkbär, hundbär (koiran juolukka), Finnish koiranjuolukka (Vaccinium uliginosum). tranbär och några andra, som ej ätas for the winter and store them in barrels. Crowberries, bog bilberries (koiran juolukka) cranberries, and some others, which are not eaten. Bland husdjur finnes blott hunden och tämda fjällräckor. Kattar brukas ej. Hunden är liten, ullig med spetsig nos. En god renhund hör till Samojedens förnäm- sta egendom. Dogs and tamed Arctic foxes are the only domestic animals. They have no cats. Their dogs are small and woolly and have a pointed nose. A good reindeer dog is the Samoyed’s most significant possession.
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Tundra betecknar ett skoglöst ställe. Här finnas höjder, dalar, floder, sjöar och kärr. Bland jordarter förek[ommer]. land och sten i största ymnighet, äfven lera och svart jord. Den sv[arta]. jorden synes hafva uppstått af torkad dy och förekommer mest vid låga och fuktiga ställen. Äfven den är ej uteslutande tundran tillhörig, utan anträffas äfven ofta wid floder. Det är i sådan jord inom mammuth-ben anträffas; emedan jorden är fuktig, snö bildrar sig deri en is, som under sommaren ej smälter. Isen har räddat mammuth-benen See [Jengora]. från förrutnelse. Tundra denotes a forestless place. There are heights, valleys, rivers, lakes, and marshes. Among soil types, there is a variety of land and stone categories; there is also clay and black earth. The black earth seems to have arisen from dried sludge and it occurs most frequently in low and humid places. It does not belong exclusively to the tundra, but is also often found by the rivers. It is in such soil that mammoth bones are found; because the earth is damp, snow forms ice in it, and the ice does not melt during the summer. The ice has saved the mammoth bones from decay.
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Samojederne kallas af Wologdska Syrjänerna: Jögra, Contemporary Komi jögra ʻjugra‘. This could go back to the practice of contrasting the Bolʹšezemelʹskaja Nenets with the other Nenets of European Russia. For example, the Kanin and Timan Nenets contrasted themselves with the “Jugor Nenets” (jugorskie nency) in the 17th century; there was also a contrast between the Forest and Jugor Nenets (Dolgich 1970: 15, 23–25). Jögra- jas, af Ischemska Syrjänerna: Jaran, Komi jaran ʻNenets’. af Ostja- ker, Qoю-choj l[eller]. Orjach. Obdorsk Khanty or-jaχ ʻNenets’ (or ʻpeople’; or-χŭj ʻNenets man; or-neŋ ʻNenets woman’). Typical Khanty expressions for the Nenets are DN (Southern Khanty) jărǝn, V (Eastern Khanty) jărɣan, Kaz (Northern Khanty) jŏrǝn. (UMF) The Samoyeds are called Jögra or Jögrajas by the Wologda Syrians; Jaran by the Izhma Syrians; Qoю-choj or Orjach by the Ostyaks.