7
20
1683
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Itineraria: Practical Information
Praical Information
The coordinates
The coordinates of all identified and localized places are given with
latitude and longitude according to the ETRS89 geographical coordinates ~WGS84. In addition, Finnish places have been localized in
MML karttapaikka (https://asiointi.maanmittauslaitos.fi/karttapaikka/)
according to the ETRS-TM35FIN system, the Swedish ones in Lantmäteriet/Kartsök och ortnamn (https://kso.etjanster.lantmateriet.se) according to SWEREF 99 TM and the Norwegian ones in Norgeskart
(http://www.norgeskart.no) according to EU89 UTM-sone 33. Places in
Russia, Mongolia and China have been localized mainly using Google
Earth and Google Maps (http://maps.google.com). In the Enisej region
also the Mapcarta Interactive map (https://mapcarta.com) has been
used, although its reliability regarding details can be questioned. See
also the list of references.
Explanation of technical signs
<>
an unclear or illegible word or expression; the length of
the illegible word is shown with <---->
[]
parts of words abbreviated by Castrén
italics ǁ 1. (in the notes), the final version, followed by the outstricks
en version(s) – In cases of expressions consisting of more
than one word, the note number referring to text-critical
notes is mostly put after the first word, but if the first word
is provided with a commentary, it can be found after the
last word of the expression.
~
an unaltered part of the sentence or expression
13
Itineraria 1osa johdanto jne.indd 13
21.8.2019 15:44:46
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Practical Information (Itineraria)
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<i>Itineraria</i> 1. Manuscripta Castreniana, Personalia II,1. Pp. 1–691. <br /><i>Itineraria</i> 2. Manuscripta Castreniana, Personalia II,2. Pp. 692–1647.<br />ISBN 978-952-7262-12-2 (1–2, print/hardcover), <br />ISBN 978-952-7262-13-9 (1, print/hardcover), <br />ISBN 978-952-7262-14-6 (2, print/hardcover), <br />ISBN 978-952-7262-15-3 (online).<br />80 € (1–2).
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Timo Salminen
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Finno-Ugrian Society
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2019
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Appendix: The Gospel of Matthew (Chapters 4–7) in the Vyčegda Dialect (Syrjaenica)
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<i>Syrjaenica</i>. Manuscripta Castreniana, Linguistica IV. 277 p. ISBN 978-952-7262-39-9 (print/hardcover), ISBN 978-952-7262-40-5 (online/pdf). 50 €.
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Transl. Aleksandr Šergin
Ed. Paula Kokkonen & Jack Rueter
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2022
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The Gospel of Matthew, Chapters 4–7 (Elementa grammatices Syrjaenae, Syrjaenica)
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<i>Syrjaenica</i>. Manuscripta Castreniana, Linguistica IV. 277 p. ISBN 978-952-7262-39-9 (print/hardcover), ISBN 978-952-7262-40-5 (online/pdf). 50 €.
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Transl. Matthias Alexander Castrén
Ed. Paula Kokkonen & Jack Rueter
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Ostiacica: Editor’s Foreword
Editor’s Foreword
The Khanty Grammar
During his second journey in 1845–49, Castrén worked for less than
three weeks with Khanty informants. This happened in the summer of
1845 after he had arrived in Siberia. He travelled from Permʹ to Ekaterinburg and further on to Tobolʹsk, where he took the boat down along
the river Irtyš towards Samarovo (today Chanty-Mansijsk). During this
boat trip, he had an opportunity to make notes on the southern Khanty
dialects.
From Samarovo, Castrén travelled down the river Obʹ and worked
with Forest Nenets, until he returned to the town of Surgut by the end
of summer. There he checked his notes on Khanty and also collected additional material from the dialects in the Surgut area. During this couple
of weeks, he outlined the Khanty grammar (in Swedish) and his companion Bergstadi translated it into German. After Castrén returned from
his journey in 1849, he was able to check the German translation and
oversee the printing of the book.
In this critical edition, most of the commentary is made based
on the printed book, here translated into English. There are only minor comments on the differences between the printed version and the
manuscript, as Castrén seemingly had control over the printing process,
and thus the printed version can be regarded as his own synthesis of the
grammatical and lexical notes.
The Manuscript
Castrén’s manuscript Vol. V in the Finnish National Library consists
of grammatical notes (Förarbeten till ”Versuch einer Ostjakischen
Sprachlehre”), the manuscript in Swedish (121 pages) and the German
translation by Bergstadi (170 pages). In the German version, many paragraphs are written twice or even three times, of which the last has been
printed and the first and possible second have been crossed out.
The printed version is a relatively true edition of the German
translation (with minor differences). This, again, is not only a translation but also an edition. The differences between the Swedish and German versions come mainly from the order of presentation of the phonological modifications. The Swedish version also includes slightly more
paradigms.
The Ostyak lexical collections make up Castrén’s manuscript
Vol. VI in the Finnish National Library. They consist of “Ostjakisk ordförteckning” (Ostyak word list), 270 pages in a provisory alphabetical
9
�Ostiacica: Editor’s Foreword
order, Khanty – Swedish; “Ostjakisk ord-register” (Ostyak word register), pp. 271–330 ordered by theme/parts of speech; “Ostjakiskt Vocabularium” (Ostyak Vocabulary) pp. 331–381, again ordered alphabetically,
translated into Swedish and also with etymological commentary (as in
the printed version); as well as several “preparatory” versions of the
word lists (383–545). Pages 547–629 consist of grammatical notes and
paradigms. The original of the Khanty – German printed version is on
pages 631–687 of manuscript Vol. VI.
The Structure of the Critical Edition
In what follows, I will first present a short outline of Khanty grammar
as it is understood today. The presentation is based on the southern dialects, which were studied after Castrén (and the Hungarian scholars
Antal Reguly and József Pápay), especially by the Finnish scholar K.F.
Karjalainen, who collected an extensive material from these dialects in
the beginning of the 20th century (Karjalainen 1948, 1964, Vértes 1975).
The dialects became extinct by the second half of the 20th century. The
Surgut dialects, which also play a role in Castrén’s grammar, are spoken
still today, and have been extensively studied by the Hungarian scholars
László Honti (e.g. Honti 1977) and Márta Csepregi (e.g. Csepregi 1998),
also in the field. The present knowledge of these dialects is based mainly
on their work.
The main part of the book is the translation of the printed grammar
with comments presented in marginal notes. It has double page numbering: running page numbers at the bottom of the page and original page
numbers from the printed grammar from 1849 at the top.
The final part consists of Castrén's word list ("Wörterverzeichniss"). The word list is commented on with a special method of its own,
and this method is described in the beginning of the list (page 78/124).
All references used in the grammar parts (both the modern and the
commented grammar) and in the word list are presented together at the
end of the volume.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank the University of Helsinki for providing me with a sabbatical year after seven years of administrative work as a full-time dean
and vice rector. I am also grateful to the Humboldt University in Berlin,
which allowed me to work in the inspiring atmosphere at the Institute of
Nordic Studies (Nordeuropa-Institut) and where I could feel the strong
tradition in Ostyakology, Khanty studies, based on the work of Wolfgang
Steinitz and his colleagues.
In Helsinki, December 2017
10
The editor
�
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<em>Ostiacica</em>. Manuscripta Castreniana, Linguistica V. 175 p. ISBN 978-952-7262-00-9 (print/hardcover), ISBN 978-952-7262-01-6 (online/pdf). 50 €.
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Ulla-Maija Forsberg
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Finno-Ugrian Society
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Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
Short Grammatical
Description of Khanty
U l l a -M a i j a Fo r sb e r g
Phonology
There is a clear tendency in the Khanty dialects, in phonology as well
as at the other levels of grammar, for the eastern dialects to show a remarkable complexity compared to the other dialect groups. The northern dialects show a great simplification and the southern dialects fall
somewhere in between.
The consonant system in Proto-Khanty was, according to Honti
(1984: 25), the following:
Labial
Dental
p
t
Palatal
Velar
k
s
m
n
ṇ
ń
ŋ
č
ć
l
ḷ
l´
ʌ
w
r
j
ɣ
There was also a labial velar consonant (fricative) *ɣ°, which occurred
only in one position (function): as the personal marker of the first person plural, as well as in possessive suffixes and in the verbal personal
endings.
The essential changes from Proto-Khanty to the Surgut, southern (Irtyš and northern (O = Obdorsk) dialects are the following:
1. In front of a velar vowel, word-initial k changed into
χ in all the western dialects, i.e. in the southern (Irtyš)
and the northern dialects. There is thus a difference
between the Irtyš/O and Surgut dialects in the words
that begin with χ in Irtyš/O and k in Surgut.
2. The Proto-Khanty lateral fricative ʌ was (and still is)
preserved in the Surgut dialects whereas in the Irtyš
dialects it merged with t and in O with l. The original
palatalized lateral *l ´ changed into a lateral palatalized
fricative in Surgut and a palatalized t´ in the South.
The Proto-Khanty ḷ lost its cacuminality in the most
dialects, taking the place of the unmarked lateral in the
consonant system.
11
�Ostiacica
3. The Proto-Khanty č was preserved in all positions in
the Surgut dialects, while in the Irtyš dialect it changed
into š in when it precedes a consonant. In other positions, it was preserved in the Irtyš dialect, too. The
palatalized affricate ć changed into t´ in both the eastern (including Surgut) and southern (Irtyš) dialects. In
O, č is represented by s and ć by ś.
4. In the Surgut dialects, the labial vowels o and ö labialized the velar consonant following them, resulting in
*k > k°, *ɣ > ɣ°, *ŋ > ŋ°. In Proto-West-Khanty (predecessor of the southern [Irtyš] and northern dialects),
the velar fricative *ɣ between vowels changed into w
after a labial front vowel, while in other positions both
*k and *ɣ became a voiceless fricative χ. When n followed in the next syllable,*ɣ changed into nasal ŋ. In
word-final positions in nouns, it disappeared.
5. The marker of the first person plural *ɣ° was preserved
in some of the Surgut dialects, whereas in other dialects, including Irtyš, it changed into w.
The consonant phonemes in Surgut (Tremjugan, Trj) and Irtyš dialects
are thus the following (Honti 1984: 26):
Trj
p
t
s
t´
k
k°
Irtyš
p
t
t´
k
s
š
m
n
ṇ
ń
ŋ
ŋ°
č
m
n
ṇ
ń
ŋ
č
χ
l
l´
l
ʌ
r
ʌ´
w
j
ɣ
ɣ°
w
r
j
ɣ
The phonological system of the northernmost dialects (O) has undergone a remarkable simplification. In the consonant system, the only
opposition left is the palatalization of the dental consonants. The
cacuminal row has disappeared.
12
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
O
p
t
s
m
n
t´
k
ś
χ
ń
ŋ
w
l
r
l´
j
The vowel system in Proto-Khanty was the same as in the modern
easternmost dialects (Vach and Vasjugan). It consists of 15 phonemes
in the first syllable, 11 full vowels and four reduced or short vowels. The
full vowels can also be considered to have a lax articulation, whereas
the reduced ones have a firm articulation (Honti 1984: 19).
Full
i̮
Reduced
a
ă
u
o
ɔ
ŏ
i
e
ä
ĕ
ü
ö
ɔ̈
ö̆
In Surgut, the number of reduced vowels has increased, while the
number of full vowels has decreased. The number of vowel phonemes
that occur in the first syllable is 13. In non-initial syllables, Trj has
eight vowels and the rest of the Surgut dialects have four. This is because the original (Proto-Khanty) velar/palatal vowel harmony is preserved in the easternmost dialects and the Trj dialect of the Surgut
group. The other Surgut dialects, as well as the Irtyš and the northern
dialects, have lost it (Honti 1984: 20).
Trj
1st syllable
i̮
u
i
o
e
å
ä
ŏ
ă
2nd syllable (other Surgut dialects)
i̮
i
i
e̮
e
e
a
ä
ä
ö̆
ɔ̈̆
ĕ
ä̆
ǝ̑
ǝ
ǝ
The southern dialects show a somewhat simplified picture. The number of vowel phonemes in initial syllables is 11 and in non-initial syllables, four (Honti 1984: 21):
DN
1st syllable
u
ü
i
o
e
a
ä
ŏ
ă
ĕ
ä̆
13
2nd syllable
i
e
ä
ǝ
�Ostiacica
In O, the vowel system is even simpler, consisting of only ten vowels
in the initial and four vowels in non-initial syllables. It is, interestingly enough, practically the same as the vowel system of the northern Mansi dialect (despite the two having arrived at the present state
through very different historical developments) (Honti 1984: 22):
O
1st syllable
u
i
o
e
a
ä
ŭ
ŏ
2nd syllable
i
e
a
ǝ
ĭ
ă
Morphology
Khanty has three numbers – singular, dual and plural – in the absolute
nominal declension and in all personal categories (possessive suffixes
of nouns and verbal personal endings). In the absolute nominal declension, the singular is unmarked, while the dual suffix goes back to
Proto-Khanty *kVn and the plural suffix ‑t derives from Proto-Uralic.
Dialect
sg
du
pl
Trj
∅
ɣən/ɣə̑n
t
Other Sur
∅
ɣən
t
DN/DT
∅
ɣən
t
O
∅
ŋən
t
In the possessive declension, the dual suffixes represent Proto-Khanty
*kVl and the plural marker goes back to Proto-Khanty *l. The dual
suffix is likely a combination of the original Uralic dual *k (which appears e.g. in the absolute dual ‑ɣ in Mansi) and a plural *l of obscure
origin.
(DN/DT = Demjanka, Southern/Irtyš, Ko = Konda, Southern/Irtyš)
Dialect
sg
du
pl
Trj
∅
ɣəʌ/ɣə̑ʌ
ʌ
Other Sur
∅
ɣəʌ
ʌ
14
DN/DT
∅
ɣǝt
t
Ko
∅
ŋǝt
t
O
∅
ŋil
l
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
E.g.
O
Ko
Trj
ewem
‘my daughter (1)’
ewem
‘my daughter (1)’
wä̆ʌim
‘my reindeer (1)’
eweŋilam
ewilam
‘my 2 daughters’ ‘my daughters (pl)’
eweŋǝtam
ewitam
‘my 2 daughters’ ‘my daughters (pl)’
wä̆ʌiɣəʌäm
wä̆ʌiʌäm
‘my 2 reindeer’
‘my reindeer (pl)’
Possessive Paradigms
Khanty makes use of possessive suffixes indicating the person of the
possessor and the number of the possessed (singular, dual or plural). The
full possessive paradigm (in the nominative) thus consists of 27 forms.
Of these forms, the second and third dual and second plural (2du 3du
2pl) have merged into a single suffix. This is a feature common to all
Khanty and Mansi dialects, even if the morphology of the suffixes varies. The possessive forms can further be inflected in the nominal cases.
(O = Northern, Ko = Konda, Southern/Irtyš, Trj = Eastern/Surgut)
1Sg
2Sg
3Sg
O ewi ‘girl, daughter’ (Honti 1984: 140)
sg possessed
du possessed
pl possessed
ewem
eweŋilam
ewilam
ewen
ewiŋilan
ewilan
eweʌ
ewiŋilal
ewilal
1du
2du
3du
ewemən
ewan
ewan
ewiŋilǝmǝn
ewiŋilən
ewiŋilǝn
ewilǝmǝn
ewilən
ewilǝn
1pl
2pl
3pl
ewew
ewan
eweʌ
ewiŋilǝw
ewiŋilən
ewiŋilal
ewilǝw
ewilən
ewilal
1sg
2sg
3sg
Ko ewǝ ‘girl, daughter’ (Honti 1984: 132)
sg possessed
du possessed
pl possessed
ewem
eweŋǝtam
ewitam
ewen
eweŋǝtan
ewitan
ewit
eweŋǝtat
ewitat
1du
2du
3du
ewemǝn
ewetǝn
ewetǝn
eweŋǝtǝmǝn
eweŋǝtǝn
eweŋǝtǝn
ewitǝmǝn
ewitǝn
ewitǝn
1pl
2pl
3pl
ewew
ewetǝn
ewet
eweŋǝtǝw
eweŋǝtǝn
eweŋǝtat
ewitǝw
ewitǝn
ewitat
15
�Ostiacica
1sg
2sg
3sg
1du
2du
3du
1pl
2pl
3pl
Trj wä̆ʌi ‘reindeer’ (Honti 1984: 130)
sg possessed
du possessed
pl possessed
wä̆ʌim
wä̆ʌiɣəʌäm
wä̆ʌiʌäm
wä̆ʌe
wä̆ʌiɣəʌä
wä̆ʌiʌä
̆ʌiʌ
̆ʌiɣəʌ
wä
wä
wä̆ʌiʌ
wä̆ʌimən
wä̆ʌiɣəʌəmən
wä̆ʌiʌəmən
̆ʌin
̆ʌiɣəʌən
wä
wä
wä̆ʌiʌən
̆ʌin
̆ʌiɣəʌən
wä
wä
wä̆ʌiʌən
wä̆ʌiɣ°
wä̆ʌiɣəʌəɣ°
wä̆ʌiʌəɣ°
̆ʌin
̆ʌiɣəʌən
wä
wä
wä̆ʌiʌən
̆ʌiʌ
̆ʌiɣəʌäʌ
wä
wä
wä̆ʌiʌäʌ
The 1sg suffix *‑m goes back to Proto-Uralic and has cognates in all of
the related languages. The same element of the first person is included
in the 1du suffix, which additionally has a marker ‑n. The whole suffix *‑mVn can be traced back to Proto-Uralic, as it has cognates in
Mansi (N āɣimen ‘the daughter of us two’), Saami (N nieidaime id.)
and Samoyedic (Nenets ngønomyih ‘the boat of us two’). The 1pl suffix
originates from Proto-Ugric. Honti (1985, 1998) gives a reconstruction
consisting of a round vowel and ‑k resulting in the Ob-Ugrian languages in ‑k° and further in something identical to the modern Surgut
form ‑əɣ°. In most of the Khanty dialects, as well as in Mansi, the suffix
is represented by ‑w (‑ǝw, ‑uw) in possessive suffixes (Mansi N χāpəw
‘our boat’) as well as in the verbal conjugation as a personal suffix (see
pp. 24–25). In Hungarian, this Proto-Ugric personal suffix appears in
its most original form, round vowel + ‑k, in the verbal conjugation, as
the suffix of 1pl in the objective (definite) conjugation (e.g. adjuk ‘we
give it’).
The form of the 2sg suffix ‑n has its origin in the verbal conjugation. In the conjugation, ‑n has a wider distribution, extending
throughout an area where the Ob-Ugrian languages are the core and
reaching to Komi in the west and Samoyedic in the east. In Ob-Ugrian,
this 2sg ‑n has further occupied the second person pronouns, which
did not occur in the neighbouring languages (Kulonen 2001a). The
2du suffix goes back to *‑tVn (shown p. 15 in the southern [Ko] paradigm) and is parallel to the 1du suffix *‑mVn (cf. Saami N nieidade ‘the
daughter of you two’). The 2pl suffix originally had only the ‑n element, which refers only to person.
The three persons 2du, 3du and 2pl have merged in all of the
dialects, but the merging has gone in different directions in different
dialects. In Ko (southern), the suffix clearly has its origins in the 2du
suffix (as it is exactly the same as in Saami, for instance), while in O
and Trj it is not possible to say which is the original function, 3du or
16
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
2pl. As ‑n likely originates from verbal inflection and the second person singular, it is more likely that the ‑n (in ~ an) is the original 3du
suffix consisting of the dual marker of the possessive suffixes without
a personal element, which would be a Proto-Khanty *‑ʌ- (PU *s). This,
in turn, appears in the 3sg and 3pl suffixes with its regular sound correspondences (O ‑l, Ko ‑t, Trj ‑ʌ).
Nominal Case System
The nominal case system in Proto-Finno-Ugrian was the following
(Janhunen 1982, Korhonen 1991)
Nominative
Accusative
Genitive
∅
*‑m
*‑n
Locative
*‑nA
Ablative
*‑tA
Lative *‑k, ?*‑n, ?*‑j
In the first phase of Proto-Ugric, the locative and the ablative merged
into a case, which Korhonen calls the prolocative (Korhonen 1991):
Nominative
Accusative
∅
*‑m
Prolocative
Lative
*‑nA, *‑tA
*‑k, ?*‑n
In the next phase (Proto-Ugric II), a new ablative case emerged, probably from a local derivative element. The accusative case (*‑t) comes
from the pronominal declension (still occurring in this function in
Khanty, see p. 19–); modern Hungarian uses this suffix in the accusative in nominal declension. At this stage, three new local cases were
also formed on the basis of a series of postpositions (root *‑nV):
Nominative
∅
Accusative *‑m/*‑t
Locative *‑nA, *‑tA
Ablative
*‑l(A)
Lative
*‑k
Locative II *‑nVt(A)
Ablative II *‑nVl
Lative II *‑nVk
In Proto-Khanty (Honti 1984: 40), the old case suffixes were represented as follows:
Nominative
∅
Lative (Dative) *‑a/*‑ä
Locative *‑na/*‑nä
< PFU, PUgric II Lative *‑k
< PFU Locative,
PUgric II Locative *‑nA
Instructive-Final *‑at/*‑ät < PFU Ablative,
PUgric II Locative *‑tA
Instrumental-Comitative *‑nat/*‑nät < PUgric Locative II *‑nVt
Translative *‑ɣa/*‑ɣä < PFU, PUgric II Lative *‑k
17
�Ostiacica
Additionally, there was an abessive case (*‑ləɣ/*‑lǝ̑ɣ) of unknown origin. The ablative was expressed, as in most of the modern Khanty
dialects, with a postposition.
In the eastern dialects, the Proto-Khanty system was expanded
with the approximative (*‑pa/*‑pä (VVj) ~ *‑nam/*‑näm (Sur), distributive (*‑tǝltä/*‑tǝ̑lta) and expletive (*‑pti/*‑pti ̮) cases, all of which are
still preserved in the Surgut dialects. The ablative postposition was
agglutinated into a suffix. In the southern (Irtyš) dialects, the function
of the instrumental-comitative was taken over by the instructive-final
and locative, while the functions of the translative were replaced by
the lative. In addition, the abessive lost its productivity. The same happened to the abessive in the northern dialects: the locative took over
the functions of both the instrumental-comitative and the instructive.
The translative disappeared in all northern dialects except Obdorsk.
All these steps have led to very different case systems depending on
the dialect: the Surgut dialects have a diverse system of 11 cases and
have thus approximately doubled the number of cases from the earlier
phases and proto-languages, whereas the northern Khanty dialects
today have the smallest number of nominal cases in the entire Uralic
language family. The modern systems are the following (to show the
dialectal variation in the case systems, the Kaz = Kazym dialect from
the northern area as well as V = Vach dialect from the eastern area are
also presented, Kr = Krasnojarsk, Southern/Irtyš):
Nominative
Lative-Dative-Loc.
Translative
O (Honti 1984: 139)
ewi ‘girl’
eweŋən ‘2 girls’ ewet ‘(pl) girls’
ewina
eweŋənna
ewetna
ewəji
(? eweŋənni
? ewetti)
Nominative
Lative-Dative
Locative
Kaz (Honti 1984: 136)
ewĭ ‘girl’
eweŋən ‘2 girls’ ewet ‘(pl) girls’
ewĭja
eweŋəna
eweta
ewĭjən
eweŋənən
ewetən
Kr (Honti 1984: 133)
Nominative
ewǝ ‘girl’
eweŋǝn ‘2 girls’ ewit ‘(pl) girls’
Lative-Dative ewǝja
eweŋǝna
ewita
Locative ewǝnǝ
eweŋǝnnǝ
ewitna
Ablative ewiwǝ(t)
eweŋǝniwǝ(t)
ewitiwǝ
Instrum.- ewejat
eweŋǝnat
ewitat
Comitative
Abessive ewǝta
?
?
18
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
Nominative
Lative-Dative
Locative
Ablative
Approximative
Instructive-Final
Instrum.Comitative
Translative
Abessive
Expletive
Trj (Honti 1984: 129)
imi ‘woman’ imiɣǝn ‘2 women’ imit ‘(pl) women’
imǝjä
imiɣǝnä
imitä
iminǝ
imiɣǝnnǝ
imitnǝ
imǝji
imiɣǝni
imiti
iminäm
imiɣǝnnäm
imitnäm
imǝjät
imiɣǝnät
imität
iminät
imiɣǝnnät
imitnät
imiɣǝ
imiɣǝʌ
imipti
imiɣǝnɣǝ
imitɣǝ
? imitǝpti
V (Honti 1984: 123)
köt ‘hand’ kötkən ‘2 hands’ kötət ‘(pl) hands’
kötä
kötkənä
kötətä
kötnə
kötkənä
kötətnə
kötöɣ
kötkənöɣ
kötətöɣ
kötpä, kötäpä (kötkən(ä)pä)
(kötət(ä)pä)
kötə
kötkənə
kötətə
kötnä(t)
kötkənnä(t)
kötətnät
Nominative
Lative-Dative
Locative
Ablative
Approximative
Instructive-Final
Instrum.Comitative
Translative
kötǝɣ
Abessive kötlǝɣ
Distributive kötəltä
Comparative kötniŋi(t)
(kötkənǝɣ)
kötkənlǝɣ
?
kötkənniŋi(t)
(kötǝtǝɣ)
kötǝtlǝɣ
?
kötǝtniŋi(t)
Pronominal Case System
The personal pronouns have three basic cases: nominative, accusative
and dative. The nominative is represented by the personal pronoun
stem, the accusative has the ending ‑t and the dative is formed with
the possessive suffix added to the stem. This seems to have been the
pronominal case system of Proto-Khanty. Many of the related FinnoUgric languages show a similar use of pronoun stem + possessive suffix (or relics of the system) either as accusative (Mansi, Hungarian) or
dative (Erzya, Mari, Komi, Udmurt), so it is probably an old feature
and might be the first actual inflected form of personal pronouns in
the development of PFU (Kulonen 2001b). An accusative case with the
ending ‑t is also found in Hungarian (nominal inflection) and Finnish
19
�Ostiacica
(personal pronouns), but the historical relationship of these accusative suffixes is not quite clear, essentially because of the two different
strategies in personal pronoun declension in the Uralic languages, the
other being a series of uninflected pronouns with a round vowel (Singular *mun *tun *sun). Khanty, as well as Mansi, Hungarian, Mari and
the Permic and Baltic-Finnic languages represent the first type: a stem
with illabial vowel (singular *mi, *ti, ?*si) and declension with possessive suffixes. The three cases in O (northern), DN (southern) and Trj
(eastern, Surgut) are the following (Honti 1984: 143, 148, 150):
Nominative
1sg
2sg
3sg
O
mä
nä̆ŋ, nĕŋ
luw
DN
mä(n)
nŏŋ
tĕw
Trj
mä
nö̆ŋ
ʌĕɣ°
1du
2du
3du
min
nin
lin
min
nin
tin
min
nin
ʌin
1pl
2pl
3pl
muŋ
näŋ
luw(ǝt)
mŏŋ
nĕŋ
tĕɣ
mĕŋ
nĕŋ
ʌĕɣ
Accusative
The accusative in the northernmost dialects (incl. O) has merged with
the dative. Accusative on its own is present only in the Kazym dialect
of the northern group (and therefore presented here). This basic accusative has the ending ‑t (‑at, ‑ät, ‑tĭ):
Kaz
1sg mantĭ, manət(tĭ)
2sg
naŋət(tĭ)
3sg
ʌŭwət(tĭ)
DN
mänt
nŏŋat
tĕwat
Trj
mänt
nö̆ŋǝt
ʌĕɣ°ät
1du
2du
3du
mĭnət(tĭ)
nĭnət(tĭ)
ʌĭnət(tĭ)
minat
ninat
tinat
minät
ninät
ʌinät
1pl
2pl
3pl
mŭŋət(tĭ)
naŋət, nĭnət(tĭ)
ʌĭwət(tĭ)
mŏŋat
nĕŋat
tĕɣat
mĕŋät
nĕŋät
ʌĕɣät
20
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
Dative
The basic form of the dative is stem + possessive suffix. It appears in its
most original form in DN (southern dialects) and some of the northern
dialects (Nizjam and Šerkaly). In Kazym, the possessive suffix can take
the further lative suffix (‑a). In Surgut, the t-element can show influence from the accusative, while in the easternmost dialects, the dative
is formed, analogically to the nominal declension, with the stem +
nominal lative ending.
1sg
2sg
3sg
O (Acc.-Dat.)
mänem
nä̆ŋen, nĕŋən
luwel
Kaz
mănem(a)
năŋen(a)
ʌŭweʌ(a)
DN
mĕnem
nŏŋen
tĕwet
Trj
mäntem
nö̆ŋäti
ʌĕɣ°äti
1du
minemən
minemǝn
minäti
2du
3du
ninan
linan
mĭnemən
mĭnemna
nĭnan(a)
ʌĭnan(a)
ninesǝn
tinesǝn
ninäti
ʌinäti
1pl
2pl
muŋew, muŋilǝw
näŋilǝn, nĕŋilǝn
mŏŋew
nĕŋesən
mĕŋäti
nĕŋäti
3pl
luwilal
mŭŋew(a)
năŋan(a)
nĭnan(a)
ʌĭweʌa
tĕɣet
ʌĕɣäti
Secondary Cases
There are a variable number of secondary cases of pronouns in different dialects. Of these, the locative is the most widespread. A locative
form of the 1sg pronoun is also attested in O (Honti 1984: 150):
Locative
DN
mänə
nŏŋnə
tĕwnə
Trj
mänə
nö̆ŋnə
ʌĕɣ°nə
1du
2du
3du
minnǝ
ninnǝ
tinnǝ
minnə
ninnə
ʌinnə
1pl
2pl
3pl
mŏŋnə
nĕŋnə
tĕɣnə
mĕŋnə
nĕŋnə
ʌĕɣnə
1sg
2sg
3sg
O
mänemna
21
�Ostiacica
The eastern dialects, including Trj in the Surgut group, have a complete nominal case paradigm for the pronouns as well (Honti 1984:
143):
1sg
2sg
3sg
Ablative
Approxim. Comitative Instrumental Translative
mäniŋtem mäntemnäm mäntemnät mäntemät mäntemɣə
nö̆ŋniŋte
nö̆ŋätinäm nö̆ŋätinät
nö̆ŋätəjät
ʌĕɣ°niŋtiʌ ʌĕɣ°ätinäm ʌĕɣ°ätinät ʌĕɣ°ätəjät
1du minniŋtimən minätinäm
2du ninniŋtin
ninätinäm
3du ʌinniŋtin
ʌinätinäm
minätinät
ninätinät
ʌinätinät
minätəjät
ninätəjät
ʌinätəjät
minätiɣə
ninätiɣə
ʌinätiɣə
1pl
2pl
3pl
mĕŋätinät
nĕŋätinät
ʌĕɣätinät
mĕŋätəjät
nĕŋätəjät
ʌĕɣätəjät
mĕŋätiɣə
nĕŋätiɣə
ʌĕɣätiɣəö
mĕŋniŋtiɣ°
nĕŋniŋtin
ʌĕɣniŋtiʌ
mĕŋätinäm
nĕŋätinäm
ʌĕɣätinäm
Verbal Inflection
The structure of inflected verbal forms is stem + (tense +) (genus/object +) person, e.g.:
păn-ǝm
păn-t-ǝm
păn-aj-ǝn
păn-t-aj-ǝn
păn-t-em
păn-t-eŋət-am
tu-ʌ-ə̑m
tu-s-ə̑m
tu-ʌ-oj-ə̑m
tu-ʌ-ə̑ɣə̑l-am
tu-s-ʌ-a
Ko
‘I (did) put (smth)’ [păn- + 1sg]
‘I (do) put (smth)’ [păn- + prs + 1sg]
‘you were being put’ [păn- + pass + 2sg]
‘you are being put’ [păn- + prs + 2sg]
‘I (do) put it’ [păn- + prs + sg<1sg]
‘I (do) put them two’
[păn- + prs + du + 1sg (or păn- + prs + du<1sg)]
Trj
‘I bring (smth)’ [tu- + prs + 1sg],
‘I brought (smth)’ [tu- + IMPF + 1sg],
‘I am brought’ [tu- + prs + pass + 1sg],
‘I bring them two’ [tu- + prs + du +
1sg (or: tu- + prs + du<1sg)],
‘you brought them’
[tu- + IMPF + pl + 2sg (tu- + IMPF + pl<2sg)]
22
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
Tempus
The only tense common to all Khanty dialects is the present tense
marked with the (Proto-Khanty) suffix *l, the origin of which is unknown. Most of the dialects have a system of two tenses, the other
one being either the unmarked perfect (as in the southern dialects)
or the imperfect with the marker ‑s-. This imperfect marker also appears in Mansi and has cognates in Nenets and Mari. Originally, it was
probably a present/past participle suffix, as can be seen in some Mansi
dialects (Kulonen 2007: 184–188). Of the Surgut dialects, Trj has both
perfect (unmarked) and imperfect (‑s-). The easternmost dialects (Vach
and Vasjugan) make use of two additional narrative past tenses.
Dialect PKh VVj Sur Sal
Present *l
l
ʌ
t
Perfect ∅
∅
∅
∅
Imperfect *s
s
(s) (s)
Hist.perf. – ɣäl –
–
Hist.imperf. – ɣäs –
–
Irt
t
∅
–
–
–
Ni Sher Kaz Ber
t
t
ʌ
l
∅
–
–
–
–
s
s
s
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
O
l
–
s
–
–
Genus
The passive voice marker in Proto-Khanty was *‑Vj-, where the quality of the vowel cannot be reconstructed on the basis of a large variation in the modern dialects. In absolute final position, i.e. in the 3sg
where no personal suffix is attached, the passive form ends with a
vowel (except in South). In Trj, it disappears in some other forms,
too. The eastern dialects show a labial vowel (‑u, ‑uj- in VVj, ‑o, ‑oj- in
Surgut) and most of the northern dialects have ‑a, ‑aj-, as well as Irtyš,
where also the 3sg forms (absolute final) include ‑j. Some (middle) dialects show a reduced vowel ‑ǝ, ‑ǝj-, (Kazym) ‑ĭ, ‑ĭj-. As stated on p. 22,
the passive marker is placed between the tense suffix and the personal
ending, unlike e.g. Mansi, which has a syntactically identical passive
voice with an (etymologically) different suffix, which was originally a
derivative element and is placed in front of the tense suffix.
In the passive forms, the basic personal endings of the verb are
also visible. As an introduction to the personal forms, the past passive
paradigms from O mä̆- ‘to give’ (‘I was given, you were given’, etc.),
Ko păn- ‘to put, to place’ (‘I was placed’, etc.) and Trj ʌåpǝt- ~ ʌipt- ‘to
feed’ (‘I was fed’, etc.) are provided (Honti 1984: 113, 115, 122):
23
�Ostiacica
1sg
2sg
3sg
O ‘to give’
mä̆sajəm
mä̆sajən
mä̆sa
Ko ‘to place’ Trj ‘to feed’
pänajəm
ʌäpǝtsojǝ̑m
pänajən
ʌäpǝtso
pänaj
ʌäpǝtsi
1du
2du
3du
mä̆sajmən
mä̆sajtən
mä̆sajŋən
pänajmən
pänajtən
pänajɣən
ʌäpǝtsojmǝ̑n
ʌäpǝtsotǝ̑n
ʌäpǝtsiɣǝn
1pl
2pl
3pl
mä̆sajəw
mä̆sajti
mä̆sajət
pänajəw
pänajtǝ
pänajət
ʌäpǝtsojǝ̑ɣ°
ʌäpǝtsotǝ̑ɣ
ʌäpǝtsät
Personal Endings
There are two sets of verbal personal endings in Khanty, one of which
is used in passive (provided above) and the subjective conjugation
(sentences without object or with a focalized object), and the other in
the objective conjugation (with a topicalized object often lacking in
the overt sentence [as a zero anaphora]). The personal suffix follows
the tense suffix except in the unmarked perfect, where it follows the
stem.
The verbal endings of the subjective conjugation show the basic and original personal elements. In Proto-Khanty, they were the
following:
1sg
-m
2sg
-n
3sg
∅
1du
-mǝn
2du
-tǝn
3du
-ɣǝn
1pl
-ɣ°
2pl
-tǝɣ
3pl
-t
The third person singular has no ending, while the third persons dual
and plural represent the absolute dual and plural suffix, respectively.
The second person dual shows the areal innovation of ‑n instead of
the PU suffix ‑t for the second person (see p. 16), but the old element
‑t- is present in the second persons of dual and plural. In addition to
the passive paradigm presented above, the following paradigms of the
subjective conjugation illustrate the mechanism. Examples are given
from both the present and the perfect tense (Synja [Syn] here representing the northernmost dialects and imperfect instead of perfect). In
can be noted that the 3sg form ends in a tense suffix, but when there
is no such suffix (as in the southern perfect), a special personal ending
‑ot is added. It is of relatively late origin, and interesting in the sense
that it is the only occurrence of a round vowel in non-first syllables in
the southern dialects. A similar occurrence is the passive suffix ‑oj- in
Surgut.
24
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
Present tense (Honti 1984: 111, 114, 121)
Syn pŏn- ‘to place’ Ko păn- ‘to place’ Trj ʌäpǝt- ‘to feed’
1sg
pŏnləm
păntam
ʌäpǝtʌǝm
2sg
pŏnlən
păntan
ʌäpǝtʌǝn
3sg
pŏnəl
pănt
ʌäpǝtǝʌ
1du
2du
3du
pŏnləmǝn
pŏnlətǝn
pŏnləŋǝn (‑tǝn)
păntǝmǝn
păntǝtǝn
păntǝŋǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝmǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝtǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝn
1pl
2pl
3pl
pŏnləw
pŏnlətĭ
pŏnlət
pănttǝw
păntǝtǝ
păntǝt
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣ°
ʌäpǝtʌǝtǝɣ
ʌäpətʌət
Perfect (Honti 1984: 112, 115, 121)
Syn pŏn- ‘to place’ Ko păn- ‘to place’ Trj ʌäpǝt- ‘to feed’
1sg
pŏtsəm
pănǝm
ʌiptǝm
2sg
pŏtsən
pănǝn
ʌiptǝn
3sg
pŏnəs
pănot
ʌipǝt
1du
2du
3du
pŏtsəmǝn
pŏtsətǝn
pŏtsəŋǝn
pănmǝn
păntǝn
pănŋǝn
ʌipǝtmǝn
ʌiptǝtǝn
ʌipetɣǝn
1pl
2pl
3pl
pŏtsəw
pŏtsətĭ
pŏtsət
pănǝw
păntǝ
pănǝt
ʌiptǝɣ°
ʌipǝtǝɣ
ʌiptǝt
It can further be noted that as the subjective conjugation endings
represent the original verbal inflection, there is also no syncretism
between the 2du 3du and 2pl forms, as in the case of possessive suffixes. The only exception is Synja, where there is a parallel suffix 3du
‑tǝn adopted from 2du.
The objective conjugation suffixes are adapted from the possessive suffix paradigm. In addition, the elements (endings) referring to
two (dual) or more (plural) objects are the same as those denoting
to du or pl possessed in the possessive paradigm. The only exception to this is the sg<3sg suffix in the easternmost dialects, which use
‑tǝ instead of the expected ‑l. The objective conjugation is essentially
used when there is a topicalized non-overt object in the sentence (zero
anaphora, or rather the object represented by the objective conjugation suffix in the verb), but it can be used with an overt object as
well. The idea of topicality instead of the former analysis based on the
definiteness of the object comes from Mansi and the analysis made by
Virtanen (2015).
25
�Ostiacica
Sample paradigms from the following dialects illustrate the
similarity between the objective conjugation and possessive suffixes
(Honti 1984: 111–122):
1sg
2sg
3sg
O mä̆- ‘to give’ (present)
sg object
du object
mä̆lem
mä̆lŋilam
mä̆len
mä̆lŋilan
mä̆lli
mä̆lŋili
pl object
mä̆llam
mä̆llan
mä̆lli
1du
2du
3du
mä̆lemən
mä̆llən
mä̆llən
mä̆lŋilmən
mä̆lŋilən
mä̆lŋilən
mä̆llǝmǝn
mä̆llǝn
mä̆llǝn
1pl
2pl
3pl
mä̆lew
mä̆llən
mä̆lət
mä̆lŋiləw
mä̆lŋilən
mä̆lŋilal
mä̆llǝw
mä̆llǝn
mä̆llal
1sg
2sg
3sg
O mä̆- ‘to give’ (preterite/imperfect)
sg object
du object
pl object
̆sem
̆sŋilam
mä
mä
mä̆slam
̆sen
̆sŋilan
mä
mä
mä̆slan
̆sli
̆sŋili
mä
mä
mä̆sli
1du
2du
3du
mä̆semən
mä̆slən
mä̆slən
mä̆sŋilmən
mä̆sŋilən
mä̆sŋilən
mä̆slǝmǝn
mä̆slǝn
mä̆slǝn
1pl
2pl
3pl
mä̆sew
mä̆slən
mä̆sət
mä̆sŋiləw
mä̆sŋilən
mä̆sŋilal
mä̆slǝw
mä̆slǝn
mä̆slal
1sg
2sg
3sg
Syn pŏn- ‘to place’ (present)
sg object
du/pl object
pŏnlem
pŏnləl(l)am
pŏnlen
pŏnləl(l)an
pŏnləl(li)
pŏnləl(li)
1du
2du
3du
pŏnlemǝn
pŏnləl(l)ǝn
pŏnləl(l)ǝn
pŏnləlmǝn
pŏnləl(l)ən
pŏnləl(l)ən
1pl
2pl
3pl
pŏnlew
pŏnləl(l)ǝn
pŏnlel
pŏnləl(l)əw
pŏnləl(l)ən
pŏnləl(l)at
26
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
1sg
2sg
3sg
Ko păn- ‘to place’ (present)
sg object
du object
păntem
pănteŋǝtam
pănten
pănteŋǝtan
păntǝt
?
1du
2du
3du
păntemən
păntetən
păntetən
pănteŋǝtəmən
pănteŋǝtən
pănteŋǝtən
1pl
2pl
3pl
păntew
păntetən
păntet
pănteŋǝtəw
pănteŋǝtən
pănteŋǝtat
1sg
2sg
3sg
Trj ʌäpǝt- ‘to feed’ (present)
sg object
du object
pl object
ʌäpǝtʌem
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝʌäm
ʌäpǝtʌǝʌäm
ʌäpǝtʌe
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝʌä
ʌäpǝtʌǝʌä
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣ
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝʌ
ʌäpǝtʌǝʌ
pl object
păntemǝt
păntenǝt
păntewət
1du
2du
3du
ʌäpǝtʌǝtǝmǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝtǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝtǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝʌǝmǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝʌǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝʌǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝmǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝʌǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝʌǝn
1pl
2pl
3pl
ʌäpǝtʌǝtǝɣ°
ʌäpǝtʌǝtǝn
ʌäpətʌiʌ
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝʌǝɣ°
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝʌǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝɣǝʌäʌ
ʌäpǝtʌǝʌǝɣ°
ʌäpǝtʌǝʌǝn
ʌäpǝtʌǝʌäʌ
1sg
2sg
3sg
Trj ʌäpǝt- ‘to feed’ (perfect)
sg object
du object
ʌiptem
ʌipǝtɣǝʌäm
ʌipte
ʌipǝtɣǝʌä
ʌipǝttǝɣ
ʌipǝtɣǝʌ
1du
2du
3du
ʌipǝttǝmən
ʌiptǝtǝn
ʌiptǝtǝn
ʌipǝtɣəʌəmən
ʌipǝtɣǝʌən
ʌipǝtɣǝʌən
ʌipǝtʌəmən
ʌipǝtʌən
ʌipǝtʌən
1pl
2pl
3pl
ʌipǝttǝɣ°
ʌiptǝtǝn
ʌiptiʌ
ʌipǝtɣǝʌəɣ°
ʌipǝtɣǝʌən
ʌipǝtɣəʌäʌ
ʌipǝtʌəɣ°
ʌipǝtʌən
ʌipǝtʌäʌ
27
pl object
ʌipǝtʌäm
ʌipǝtʌä
ʌipǝtǝʌ
�Ostiacica
Directives
Proto-Khanty had an imperative form for second persons. The imperative suffix was a full vowel (*a/*ä [subjective conjugation], *i ̮/*i
[objective conjugation]) and is still represented as a full vowel in different dialects (Honti 1984: 47). 2sg has no personal ending, and in
2du and 2pl forms of the subjective conjugation respective personal
endings are attached to the vowel-final imperative form. In the objective conjugation, the personal suffixes and the scope of objective
conjugation forms vary between dialects, and the differences are not
easily explicable.
Some examples of imperatives:
jăŋɣ-a
DN (Vértes 1975: 10)
mĕn-a
jŏχ
tuw-e!
walk-Imp.2Sg go-Imp.2Sg to=home take-Imp.Sg<2Sg
‘come, go and take him home!’
O mä̆-, mij- ‘to give’ (Honti 1984: 122)
Subj. Conj.
sg Object
2sg
mija
miji
2du
mijatǝn
mijalǝn
2pl
mijati
mijalǝn
pl Object
mijila
mijijalǝn
mijijalǝn
2sg
2du
2pl
Ko păn- ‘to put’ (Honti 1984: 115)
Subj. Conj.
sg Object
du Object
păna
păne
păneŋǝta
pănatǝn
pănetǝn
păneŋǝtǝn
pănatǝ
pănetǝn
?
pl Object
păneta
?
?
2sg
2du
2pl
Trj ʌäpǝt- ‘to give to eat’ (Honti 1984: 112)
Subj. Conj.
sg Object
du Object
ʌiptä
ʌipte
ʌiptiɣəʌä
ʌiptitǝn
ʌiptitǝn
ʌiptiɣəʌən
ʌiptitəɣ
ʌiptitǝn
ʌiptiɣəʌən
pl Object
ʌiptiʌä
ʌiptiʌən
ʌiptiʌən
In many dialects, there are also optative/jussive forms. In the northern
dialects, they are lacking. The southern dialects have optative forms
for first and third persons. There is no difference between subjective
and objective conjugation. The forms seem to be based on the 2sg
imperative:
28
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
DN păn- ‘to put’ (Honti 1984: 115)
1sg
pănam
3sg
pănaŋ(at)
1du
3du
pănamən
pănaŋǝn
1pl
3pl
pănaw
pănat
The Trj dialect also shows optative/jussive for first and third persons,
and in most of them (excl. 1sg and 1du), there is also a full paradigm
for the objective conjugation:
1sg
3sg
Trj ʌäpǝt- ‘to give to eat’ (Honti 1984: 112)
Subj. Conj.
sg Object
du Object
ʌiptimät
?
?
ʌiptǝjät
ʌiptität
ʌiptiɣəʌät
pl Object
?
ʌiptiʌät
1du
3du
ʌiptimənät
ʌiptiɣǝnät
?
ʌiptitǝnät
?
ʌiptiʌǝnät
1pl
3pl
ʌiptiɣ°ät
ʌiptität
?
ʌiptiɣəʌǝnät
?
ʌiptiɣəʌəɣ°ät ʌiptiʌəɣ°ät
ʌiptiʌäʌät ʌiptiɣəʌäʌät ʌiptiʌäʌät
In the southern and Surgut dialects, the passive voice also has an optative paradigm. The suffix used in these forms in ‑mus-/‑mos- in Surgut
and ‑mas- in the South. In the southern (Kr) dialect, the suffix has
the function of optative and the structure of the form is stem + mood
(‑mas-) + genus (‑ǝj) + person; in Trj, the suffix ‑mus-/‑mos- serves as
the passive suffix, as the personal endings come from the optative paradigm where the mood suffix is in fact a kind of clitic. The structure
of the Trj forms is stem + genus (‑mus-/‑mos-) + person + mood (‑at):
Kr seŋk- ‘to beat’
Trj ʌäpǝt- ‘to give to eat’
seŋkmasǝjǝm
seŋkmasǝjǝn
seŋkmasǝ(j)
ʌäpǝtmusǝ̑mat
ʌäpǝtmusǝ̑nat
ʌäpǝtmosat
1du
2du
3du
seŋkmasǝjmǝn
seŋkmasǝjtǝn
seŋkmasǝjŋǝn
ʌäpǝtmosmǝ̑nat
ʌäpǝtmustǝ̑nat
ʌäpǝtmusɣǝ̑nat
1pl
2pl
3pl
seŋkmasǝjǝw
seŋkmasǝjtǝ
seŋkmasǝjǝt
ʌäpǝtmosǝ̑ɣ°at
ʌäpǝtmostǝ̑ɣat
ʌäpǝtmosat
1sg
2sg
3sg
(Honti 1984: 116)
29
(Honti ibid. 113)
�Ostiacica
Syntax
This very short description of syntactical phenomena is based on
Southern Khanty.
Word Order
The basic word order in Khanty is SOV (and in intransitive constructions, S-Adv-V). The place for Topic is in the beginning of the sentence
and the place for Focus in front of the verbal predicate. There are,
though, exceptions, meaning that the word order can be seen as a
tendency rather than a strict rule:
SOV
[ – – ]
urt
[name] hero (S)
DN (SüdostjK: 6)
täpǝt piš
täw=soχ
7
tunt-ot
fold horse=pelt (O)
put=on-past.3Sg (V)
‘the hero put on a sevenfold horse pelt’
mä
1Sg
DN (SüdostjK: 9)
jĕɣ-păɣ-em
brother-px.Sg<1Sg (O)
wet-en
kill-past.2Sg (V)
‘you killed my brother’
χutǝm
3
imǝ
woman (S)
Ko (SüdostjP III: 2)
χutǝm χut
3
fish (O)
wet-ǝt
catch-pret.3pl (V)
‘the three women caught three fishes’
SVO
[ – – ]
[name]
DN (SüdostjK: 1)
urt,
tĕw
hero
tăj-ot
3Sg (S) have-pret.3Sg (V)
sewǝŋ ewǝ, wetˊ ŋ ewǝ
ǝ
braided
daughter (O)
beautiful daughter (O)
‘the hero, he had a braided daughter, a beautiful daughter’
30
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
SVAdv
DN (SüdostjK: 2)
mĕn-t-əmən, jĕɣ-păχ, wit
go-prs-1du (V)
brother upstream
woč-əmen-a
town-px.Sg<1du-lat (Adv)
‘brother, we’ll go to our upstream town’
Complex Sentences
Temporal subordinate sentences are formed with action converb
structures if the sentences refer to the same time:
DN (SüdostjK: 3)
tˊ w-kemnǝ [ – – ] kimǝtˊ
ĕ
äŋkǝr-mǝmitat-nǝ,
[ – – ]
then
jeɣǝ χŏr
outwards
pĕt-ewǝ
look-prtc.px.Sg<3pl-loc,
enǝ rot tŏt
ti
kätt-ǝt
river bend bottom-abl big boat there ptcl appear-past.3Sg
‘then when they looked out (of the window), a big
boat [– –] appeared in the bend of the river
If the sentences refer to happenings that follow each other, a particle
kemnǝ follows the participle form of the subordinated verb:
nŏχ
up
χănč-atəmet
rip-prtc.px.Sg<3Sg
nŏχ
DN (SüdostjK: 10)
kemnə ewəm-ta,
up
kemnə
ti
ptcl
mostə-ta
hug-inf kiss-inf
jĕw-ət
start-prs.3Sg
‘when she has unpicked [the seams], she starts to hug and kiss him’
When there is any hint of causality in the subordination, a conjunction is used (along with a finite verb):
kŏš nŏɣ ätmitt-ət
cnj up
DN (SüdostjK: 10)
weɣ-ət ĕnt
tĕrm-ət
lift-prs.3Sg strength-px.Sg<3Sg not be=enough-prs.3Sg
‘when (~ even though) she tries to lift him, she has no strength’
31
�Ostiacica
Predicative Structures
In present predicative sentences where both NPs represent 3sg, there
is no copula:
äj-pe
DN (SüdostjK: 1)
jĕg-păɣ-ət,
unt=toŋχ-ta
small-cl brother.px.Sg<3Sg forest=devil(‑car)
jĕg-păɣ-ət
brother.px.Sg<3Sg
pelkat χoj, kŏtǝp
half man, middle
pes=nem-ta
without-name-car
χoj
man
‘his youngest brother is the man-half-forest-devil;
his middle brother is the nameless-man’
In other persons and tenses, the verb us- (ut-) ‘to be’ is needed:
DN (SüdostjK: 11)
tütəŋ
nun
us-tan
fiery
cunt
be-prs.2Sg
‘you are a fiery cunt’
Possessive Structures
The GN structure in Khanty is expressed with a possessor in nominative + possessed with a possessive suffix:
DN (SüdostjK: 12)
tăɣər-sem
kĕŋən-tat
armour
button-px.pl<3Sg
‘the buttons of the armour’
täw
DN (SüdostjK: 10)
sŏχ-ət
jontəm=jăt-tat
horse pelt-px.sg<3Sg seam-px.pl<3Sg
‘the seams of the horse’s pelt’
mŏŋǝ
1pl
DN (SüdostjK: 7)
jart-ew-a
tut-ew
fortress-px.Sg<1pl.lat bring-prs.Sg<1pl
‘we’ll take him into our fortress’
32
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
mŭŋ
Sav (SüdostjK: 141)
wet-aj-ǝt
tĕw neŋ-ǝt
moχ-tew
pĕta
ˊ
1pl child-px.pl<1pl kill-past.pass-3pl 3Sg wife-px.Sg<3Sg because
‘our children were killed because of his wife’
When the possessor itself is possessed (is marked with px), the possessed can also be left unmarked:
Sav (SüdostjK: 143)
măńǝk-em
kur sămǝrm-ǝt-em
nephew-px.Sg<1Sg
foot
grab-prs-Sg<1Sg
‘I’ll grab my nephew’s foot’
măńǝket
nephew-px.Sg<3Sg
Sav (SüdostjK: 143)
kur
tˊ
ǝ
foot
ptcl
sămǝrm-ǝt
grab-past.Sg<3Sg
‘he grabbed his nephew’s foot’
The predicative possession is expressed with the verb tăj- ‘to have’:
[ – – ] urt, tĕw
DN (SüdostjK: 1)
tăjot
sewǝŋ ewǝ,
wetˊ ŋ ewǝ
ǝ
[name] hero, 3Sg have-pret.3Sg braided daughter beautiful daughter
‘the hero, he had a braided daughter, a beautiful daughter’
Dative Shift and Passive
All Khanty dialects make use of dative shift to move topical/animate
recipients and benefactives from oblique to object position. The object
is marked with nominative, or, if it is a personal pronoun, with accusative, and the original object in the new oblique position is marked
in the southern dialects with the instrumental-comitative (‑at) case.
Other dialects use either locative (‑nə, northern dialects) or instructive-final (‑at/‑ät, eastern dialects), depending on the case system (see
pp. 18–19). (One can also observe in these examples that in the case of
coordinated parts of speech [marked here with ‿], the inflectionally
suffix usually occurs only on the latter one.)
33
�Ostiacica
män-t,
pĕɣtə ńŏɣǝs, pĕɣtə wăχsar-at măχta
1Sg-acc
tŭwetteŋ
DN (SüdostjK: 3–4)
χŏj,
pĕt-ettem
tall
man
black‿sable‿black‿fox-instr
ear-px.pl<1Sg
along
măχta,
along
täk-at
ˊ
throw-opt.3pl
‘may they cover me (throw around me), a big man,
up to my ears (with) black sables, black foxes’
Similarly, topicalized objects can be moved to subject position by using the passive voice. The new subject is in the nominative and the
former subject becomes the agent marked with locative (in all dialects;
the locative in the northern dialects has a heavy load because it is used
to mark many oblique constituents, even grammatical ones!):
äj=pa
neŋ-nǝ
Ko (SüdostjP III: 14)
kŏttǝp=pa
neŋ
ĕńtˊ st-aj
ǝ
young=prtc woman-loc middle=prtc woman ask-past.pass. 3Sg
‘the middle woman was asked by the youngest woman’
(< äj=pa
neŋ
kŏttǝp=pa
neŋ
ǝ
ĕńtˊ st-ǝt
young=prtc woman middle=prtc woman ask-past.Sg.3Sg)
jĕŋk-a
DN (SüdostjK: 9)
waɣət-tə ewe-t-nə kŏjənt=otəŋ-at
seŋk-t-aj
water-lat go-prtc girl-pl-loc yoke=end-instr beat- prs-pass.3Sg
‘he is beaten by the water-carrying girls with
the tip of the (water-carrying) yoke’
(< jĕŋk-a waɣət-tə
water-lat go-prtc
ewe-t
kŏjənt=otəŋ-at
girl-pl
seŋk-t-et
yoke=end-instr beat-prs-Sg.3pl
‘the water-carrying girls beat him with the tip of the yoke’)
Both the dative shift and the passive can occur in the same sentence,
as in the following example. It is to be expected, because an animate,
human entity often acts as a recipient in the sentence, and additionally, is the main character in the story and thus has a high degree of
topicality:
34
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
DN (SüdostjK: 4)
pĕɣtə ńŏɣǝs, pĕɣtə wăχsar-at
weŋ-tat
χănǝm-tat-nǝ
black‿sable‿black‿fox-instr son-in-law-px.pl<3Sg‿relative-px.pl<3Sg-loc
ti
kit-aj
ptcl send-past.pass.3Sg
‘he was sent black sables and black foxes
by his sons-in-law, his relatives’
The agent in a passive sentence is often overt only when it is focalized.
Agentless passive sentences are much more common (illustrated here
with four sentences in a row from SüdostjK: 7):
DN
tˊ w-kemnǝ
ĕ
then
tŏt
that
urttat-nǝ
săɣat
täpǝt piš
tŏt=ti
kätt-aj.
hero-px.pl<3Sg-loc that=ptcl catch-past.pass.3Sg
time
nik
ti
to=shore
täw
sŏχ
waɣǝtt-aj.
ptcl walk+caus-past.pass.3Sg
sĕmǝ-ja
ti
jont-aj,
seven fold horse pelt inside-lat ptcl sew-past.pass.3Sg
rot-a
ti
păn-aj.
boat-lat ptcl put-past.pass.3Sg
‘Then his heroes caught him. After that, he was
taken down to the shore. He was put inside the
sevenfold horse pelt and laid down in a boat.’
Another type of passive is the impersonal, where both subject and
agent are lacking. The impersonal passive describes an action only,
without reference to who is the actor (or the target). Here, an example
is presented with context:
jewəttə-ta
ˊˊ
tŏt=tə
DN (SüdostjK: 6)
jĕw-ət
i
shoot-inf that-ptcl start-past.3pl
and
čupa
only
pira
around
jewəttə-ta jĕw-aj
ˊˊ
shoot-inf start-past.pass.3Sg
‘they (the heroes) started to shoot, there was shooting all around’
35
�Ostiacica
Negation
In the standard negation, a negative particle ĕn(t) is used. It is followed by the finite verb (predicate) in the same form as in affirmative
sentences:
DN (SüdostjK: 11)
tu-tə
χăčaχ ĕnt
χoj
tăj-t-an
man carry-inf strength neg have-prs.2Sg
‘you don’t have the strength to carry a man’
(cf.
χoj
tu-tə
χăčaχ
tăj-t-an
man carry-inf strength
have-prs.2Sg
‘you have [enough] strength to carry a man’ [constructed])
Sav (SüdostjK: 150)
män=pä ĕn
χet-t-am
ˊ
1Sg=too neg stay-prs.1Sg
‘I won’t stay either’
(cf.
ˊ
χet-t-am
män=pä
1Sg=too
stay-prs.1Sg
‘I will stay, too’ [constructed])
In the negation of predicative structures (existentials), the negative
word is ĕntəm. It is used with negative counterparts of affirmative sentences both without a copula and with ut- ‘to be’ (see p. 32). It cannot
be called a negative particle because it is inflected in number:
tĕɣ tŏtt(ǝ) ĕntam-ǝt
DN (KT 58)
män tŏtt(ǝ) ĕntam
nin tŏtt(ǝ) ĕntam-eɣǝn
they are not there’
‘
‘I am not there’
‘you two are not there’
3pl there neg-pl 1Sg there neg 2du there neg-du
The negation of directives has a negative particle of its own in ät. It is
followed by the imperative form, which is the same as in affirmative
directives:
36
�Short Grammatical Description of Khanty
Sav (SüdostjK: 150)
ät
täwǝtt-atǝn!
ˊ ˊˊ
neg
scold-Imp.2du
‘don’t scold me (, you two)!’
The same negative particle is also used in conjunctive functions (the
conjunctive is expressed in the example with the Russian loan word
štobi, but the function is stressed by using the imperative/optative
variant of the particle):
jŏχ
home
DN (SüdostjK: 11)
ti
nĕr-ot
ptcl
χeti-tat-nə
run-past.3Sg
štobi
štobi
ät ăjət-taj
grandson-px.pl<3Sg-loc neg
see-prs.pass.3Sg
‘(she) runs home so that she would not be seen by her grandsons’
37
�
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Title
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Short Grammatical Description of Khanty (Ostiacica)
Subject
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<em>Ostiacica</em>. Manuscripta Castreniana, Linguistica V. 175 p. ISBN 978-952-7262-00-9 (print/hardcover), ISBN 978-952-7262-01-6 (online/pdf). 50 €.
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Ulla-Maija Forsberg
Publisher
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Finno-Ugrian Society
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2018
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© Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura – Société Finno-Ougrienne – Finno-Ugrian Society & the authors
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https://www.sgr.fi/manuscripta/files/original/6c7eb45894916ed518565e1fffbabd10.pdf
085dc331e45c7e73c48d5a8f9f992972
PDF Text
Text
Ostiacica
Abbreviations
Abl.
ABL
Acc.
ACC
Adv
Afg.
Ber
C
CAR
Cher.
CL
CNJ
Dat.
DAT
DN
DT
Du
DU
Est
Fi
Fi.
Finn.
frequ.
fut.
G
Hu.
= Ablative
= Ablative
= Accusative
= Accusative
= Adverbial
= Afghan
= Berëzov (dialect of Khanty)
= Consonant
= Caritive
= Cheremis (Mari)
= Clitic
= Conjunction
= Dative
= Dative
= Northern Demjanka (dialect of Khanty)
= Demjanka (dialect of Khanty),
informant Tajlakov
= Dual
= Dual
= Estonian
= Finnish
= Finnish
= Finnish
= Frequentative
= Future (present) tense
= Genitive (Possessor)
= Hungarian
IMP
IMPF
INF
Instr.
INSTR
Iran
Irt
Kaz
Kh
Ko
Ko
KO
Kr
Lapp.
Likr
Loc.
LOC
LS.
Md
Mn
MnE
MnN
mom.
Mr
M.T.
N
172
= Imperative
= Imperfect (tense)
= Infinitive
= Instructive(-final)
= Instructive-final
= Iranian
= Irtyš (dialect(s) of Khanty)
= Kazym (dialect of Khanty)
= Khanty
= Konda (dialect of Khanty,
in the grammar)
= Komi (in the word list = Zr.)
= Upper Konda (dialect of Khanty)
= Krasnojarsk (dialect of Khanty)
= Lappish (Saami)
= Likrisovskoje (dialect of Khanty)
= Locative
= Locative
= The dialect on the lower side of Surgut
= Mordvin
= Mansi
= Eastern Mansi
= Northern Mansi
= Momentaneous
= Mari
= Turkish or Tartar in Minušinsk
= Northern
�Abbreviations
N
= Noun
= Negative
Nen
= Nenets
Ni
= Nizjam (dialect of Khanty)
O
= Obdorsk (dialect of Khanty)
O
= Object
Obd.
= Obdorsk (dialect of Khanty)
OPT
= Optative
O.Sam. = Ostyak-Samoyedic (Selkup)
PASS
= Passive
PFU
= Proto-Finno-Ugric
Pl.
= Plural
PL
= Plural
Plur.
= Plural
Pret.
= Preterite
PRS
= Present (tense)
PRTC
= Participle
PTCL
= Particle
PU
= Proto-Uralic
PUgric = Proto-Ugric
PX
= Possessive suffix
R.
= Russian
Ru.
= Russian
S
= Subject
S.
= The dialect of Surgut
Saa
= Saami
Sal
= Salym (dialect of Khanty)
NEG
Sam
Sav
Šer
Sg.
SG
Sing.
Slk
So
Sur
Sur.
Surg.
Syn
Tat
Tra
Trj
Ts
Tu.
Turk.
Ud
US.
V
V
Vart
Vj
VVj
Zr.
173
= Samoyedic (mainly Nenets)
= Savodnija (dialect of Khanty)
= Šerkaly (dialect of Khanty)
= Singular
= Singular
= Singular
= Selkup
= Sosva (dialect of Mansi)
= Surgut (dialect(s) of Khanty)
= The dialect of Surgut
= The dialect of Surgut
= Synja (dialect of Khanty)
= Tartar
= Tromagan (dialect of Khanty)
= Tremjugan (dialect of Khanty)
= Cingala (dialect of Khanty)
= Turkic (Turkish)
= Turkish
= Udmurt
= The dialect on the upper side of Surgut
= Vach (dialect of Khanty)
= Verb
= Vartovskoje (dialect of Khanty)
= Vasjugan (dialect of Khanty)
= Vach and Vasjugan (dialects of Khanty)
= Zyrian (Komi)
�
Text
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Title
A name given to the resource
Abbreviations (Ostiacica)
Subject
The topic of the resource
<em>Ostiacica</em>. Manuscripta Castreniana, Linguistica V. 175 p. ISBN 978-952-7262-00-9 (print/hardcover), ISBN 978-952-7262-01-6 (online/pdf). 50 €.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Ulla-Maija Forsberg
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Finno-Ugrian Society
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
© Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura – Société Finno-Ougrienne – Finno-Ugrian Society & the authors
-
https://www.sgr.fi/manuscripta/files/original/bbcade2dd07ace341d6614a6b1ee3978.pdf
4c9ef6c517f48b7264f559707631e19d
PDF Text
Text
Ostiacica
References
Ahlqvist� August,1880. Über die Sprache der Nord,
Ostjaken. Sprachtexte, Wörtersammlung und Grammatik. Helsingfors.
ALH
= Acta Linguistica Hungarica. Budapest.
Bartens� Raija, 2000. Permiläisten kielten rakenne ja
,
kehitys. MSFOu 238.
Csepregi� Márta, 1998. Szurgut osztják Chrestomathia.
,
Szeged.
DEWOS� = Steinitz, Wolfgang: Dialektologisches und
etymologisches Wörterbuch der ostjakischen Sprache.
Berlin 1966–84.
FUF�= Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen. Helsinki.
FUFA� = Anzeiger zu den Finnisch-Ugrischen Forschungen. Helsinki
Honti� László, 1977. Beobachtungen über die Laut,
und Morphemlehre gegenwärtiger Surguter Mundarten des Ostjakischen. ALH 27: 271–286.
Honti� László, 1979. Characteristic Features of Ugric
,
Langugages (Observations on the Question of Ugric
Unity). ALH 29: 1–29.
Honti� László, 1984. Chrestomathia Ostiacica. Tan,
könyvkiadó, Budapest.
Honti� László, 1985. Ősmagyar hangtörténeti talá,
nyok. MNy 81: 140–155.
Honti� László, 1988. Die Ob-ugrischen Sprachen; I
,
Die wogulische Sprache, II Die ostjakische Sprache.
Sinor D. (ed.), The Uralic Languages; Description, History and Foreign Influences: 147–196. Leiden – New
York – København – Köln.
Honti� László, 1993. Die Grundzahlwörter der urali,
schen Sprachen. Akadémiai kiadó, Budapest.
Honti� László, 1998. Ugrilainen kantakieli – erheelli,
nen vai reaalinen hypoteesi? Oekeeta asijoo; Commentationes in honorem Seppo Suhonen sexagenarii: 176–
187. MSFOu 228.
Janhunen� Juha 1981: Uralilaisen kantakielen sanas,
tosta. JSFOu 77: 219–271.
Janhunen� Juha, 1982. On the structure of Proto,
Uralic. FUF 44, 23–42.
JSFOu�= Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne. Helsinki.
174
Karjalainen� K. F., 1902. Zur ostjakischen Dialekt,
kunde. FUFA 2, 77–78.
Karjalainen� K. F., 1948. Ostjakisches Wörterbuch.
,
Bearbeitet und herausgegeben von Y. H. Toivonen.
LSFOu X.
Karjalainen� K. F., 1964. Grammatikalische Aufzeich,
nungen aus ostjakischen Mundarten. Bearbeitet und
herausgegeben von Edith Vértes. MSFOu 128.
Korhonen� Mikko, 1991. Remarks on the structure
,
and history of the Uralic case system. JSFOu 83: 163–
180.
KT�= Karjalainen 1948.
Kulonen� Ulla-Maija, 1989. The Passive in Ob-Ugrian.
,
MSFOu 203.
Kulonen� Ulla-Maija, 1993. Johdatus unkarin kielen
,
historiaan. Suomi 170. SKS.
Kulonen� Ulla-Maija, 2001a. Zum n-Element der
,
zweiten Personen besonders im Obugrischen. FUF 56:
151–174.
Kulonen� Ulla-Maija, 2001b. Über die Deklinati,
on der Personalpronomina in der finnisch-ugrischen
Grundsprache. Congressus nonus internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum, Tartu 7.–13.8.2000. Pars V, Dissertationes sectiorum: Linguistica II: 178–182.
Liimola� Matti, 1963. Zur historischen Formenlehre des
,
Wogulischen. I. Flexion der Nomina. MSFOu 127.
LSFOu�= Lexica Societatis Fenno-Ugricae. Helsinki.
MNy�= Magyar Nyelv. Budapest.
MSFOu� = Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne.
Helsinki.
Paasonen� Heikki, 1926. Ostjakisches Wörterbuch
,
nach den Dialekten an der Konda und am Jugan. Zusammengestellt, neu transkribiert und und herausgegeben von Kai Donner. LSFOu II.
Paasonen� Heikki, 1965. Ostjakische grammatikali,
sche Aufzeichnungen nach den Dialekten an der Konda und am Jugan. Bearbeitet, neu transkribiert und
herausgegeben von Edith Vértes. JSFOu 66,2: 1–96.
Rédei� Károly, 1968. Nord-Ostjakische Texte (Kazym,
Dialekt) mit Skizze der Grammatik. Abhandlungen der
Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen; Philologisch-historische Klasse; Dritte Folge Nr 71. Göttingen.
�References
Rédei� Károly, 1988. Uralisches etymologisches Wörter,
buch I–II. Budapest.
Sauer� Gerd, 1967. Die Nominalbildung im Ostjaki,
schen. Finnisch-Ugrische Studien V. Berlin.
SKS�= Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, Helsinki.
Sosa� Sachiko, 2017. Functions of morphosyntactic al,
ternations, and information flow in Surgut Khanty Discourse. University of Helsinki.
SSA�= Erkki Itkonen & Ulla-Maija Kulonen (ed.), Suomen sanojen alkuperä. SKS 1992, 1995, 2000.
Steinitz� Wolfgang, 1950. Geschichte des ostjakischen
,
Vokalismus. Finnisch-ugrische Studien I. Berlin.
SüdostjK�= Vértes, Edith, 1975.
SüdostjP�= Vértes, Edith, 1980.
UEW� = Rédei, Károly (ed.), Uralisches etymologisches
Wörterbuch. Otto Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden 1988–1991.
Vértes� Edith, 1967. Die ostjakischen Pronomina. Bu,
dapest.
Vértes� Edith, 1975. K. F. Karjalainens südostjaki,
sche Textsammlungen. Neu transkribiert, berabeitet,
übersetzt und herausgegeben von Edith Vértes. Bd I;
MSFOu 157.
Vértes� Edith, 1980. H. Paasonens südostjakische Text,
sammlungen. Neu transkribiert, berabeitet, übersetzt
und herausgegeben von Edith Vértes. Bände I–IV.
MSFOu 172–175.
Virtanen� Susanna 2015: Transitivity in Eastern Man,
si; an Information Structural Approach. University of
Helsinki.
175
�
Text
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Title
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References (Ostiacica)
Subject
The topic of the resource
<em>Ostiacica</em>. Manuscripta Castreniana, Linguistica V. 175 p. ISBN 978-952-7262-00-9 (print/hardcover), ISBN 978-952-7262-01-6 (online/pdf). 50 €.
Creator
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Ulla-Maija Forsberg
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Finno-Ugrian Society
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2018
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
© Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura – Société Finno-Ougrienne – Finno-Ugrian Society & the authors
-
https://www.sgr.fi/manuscripta/files/original/1587e823d1c44d754cebdbe9deac6bc4.JPG
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Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
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Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 149
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Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
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Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 150
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
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Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 151
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
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Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 152
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 153
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
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Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 154
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 155
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 156
-
https://www.sgr.fi/manuscripta/files/original/7c749a3f494c56082d4611ebcdcba133.jpg
806199776101403b148e98077e22f87e
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 157
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 158
-
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9fc1dabb0adc49cb9e67ee6f93872b6c
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 159
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 160
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic Poem 1
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Three reindeer herding brothers, their wives, one of their sons, and their hired man (Tabadoda) live on the ridge. Suddenly, all but the youngest brother die. He leaves, walking away from the camp. The wife of his older brother follows him and they begin to walk together. They have a child.</p>
<p>Starving, they try to eat a reindeer carcass but the woman’s knife sticks into the reindeer’s skull. They arrive at a reindeer camp. A young woman is given as a wife to the man, but while he is sleeping the woman is taken away. The man leaves to get her back.</p>
<p>Riding the sledge, the man hears two men talking behind the clouds; they are sons of his brothers. He takes them with him. They arrive at a reindeer camp and begin to shoot arrows. He steals an iron belt. They run jumping up to the clouds. They arrive at another camp, begin to shoot arrows, and run up to the clouds. They arrive at a third camp and drive the people to the clouds.</p>
<p>The people from these three camps gather together in a large iron tent at the top of the sandy hill. While they fight each other, the hero pushes the top of the hill into the sea, and they all die. The three men ride back, taking seven other women with them, after they find the young woman who had been taken.</p>
<p>The young woman turns out to be the mother of one of the men, and she had tried to kill his son. The son tears her scalp away, and the woman is given as a slave to the camp that originally gave the reindeer to the men.</p>
<p>Riding back, the man comes upon a former reindeer carcass. He meets a man there riding with mammoths who says he has killed the relatives of the wives of the dead brothers. The men come back to the former camp and begin to live there.</p>
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Epic poem 1A. Page 161